NRSG 2350 LATEST 2026 TEST PAPER QUESTIONS AND
SOLUTIONS GRADED A+
✔✔Hyperkalemia - ✔✔excessive potassium in the blood
✔✔Hyperkalemia causes - ✔✔M.A.C.H.I.N.E.
M - Medications - ACE inhibitors, NSAIDS
A - Acidosis - Metabolic and respiratory
C - Cellular destruction - Burns, traumatic injury
H - Hypoaldosteronism, hemolysis
I - Intake - Excesssive
N - Nephrons, renal failure
E - Excretion - Impaired
✔✔Hyperkalemia S/S - ✔✔M.U.R.D.E.R.
M - Muscle weakness
U - Urine, oliguria, anuria
R- Respiratory distress
D - Decreased cardiac contractility
E - ECG changes
R - Reflexes, hyperreflexia, or areflexia (flaccid)
✔✔Hypocalcemia - ✔✔an abnormally low level of calcium in the blood
✔✔Hypocalcemia causes - ✔✔*Inadequate dietary intake of calcium*
*Inhibited absorption of calcium from the intestinal tract*
*Inadequate vitamin D consumption*
Diarrhea
Long-term immobilization and *bone demineralization*
Excessive gastrointestinal losses from diarrhea or wound draining
*End-stage* renal disease
*Calcium-excreting medications* such as diuretics, caffeine, anticonvulsants, heparin,
laxatives, and nicotine
*Decrease secretion of parathyroid hormone*
Acute pancreatitis
Crohn's disease
*Excessive administration of blood*
✔✔Hypocalcemia S/S - ✔✔C.A.T.S.
C - Convulsions
A- Arrhythmias
T - Tetany (involuntary contraction of muscles)
S - Spasms and stridor
,✔✔What is pharmacology? - ✔✔the study of drugs and their interactions with living
systems
✔✔Drug classification - ✔✔A method of grouping drugs; may be based on structure or
therapeutic use.
✔✔Drug Development Phases - ✔✔Preclinical - 1-4 years - in vitro screening, molecular
Biology studies, Molecule discovery and characterization.
Phase 0 - 3-6 years - animal trials.
Phase 1 - 3-6 years - Assess toxicity, evaluate route, determine safe dosages
Phase 2 - 5-9 years - evaluate effectiveness and determine side effects.
Phase 3 - 8-12 years - validate effectiveness.
FDA Approval - market introduction.
✔✔Preclinical phase (drug development) - ✔✔exploring efficacy and safety before it's
administered to patients
Company files IND if this passes safely so they can try it on patients
✔✔Phase 0 (drug development) - ✔✔animal trials
✔✔Phase 1 (drug development) - ✔✔*Refers to the first time humans are given the
drug
*Subjects are healthy young adults (usually)
*limited subject # (20-80)
*Non blinded phase that tests pharmacokinetics
✔✔Phase 2 (drug development) - ✔✔Conducted on several hundred patients with
specific disease to determine short-term safety and effectiveness of the drug
✔✔Phase 3 (drug development) - ✔✔Large number of patients, 1000-3000 in medical
research centers receive the drug. Provides info about infrequent or rare side effects.
Double blind study.
✔✔FDA drug approval process - ✔✔A pharmaceutical company seeking FDA approval
to sell a new prescription drug must complete a five-step process: discovery/concept,
preclinical research, clinical research, FDA review and FDA post-market safety
monitoring
✔✔Generic Drugs - ✔✔Drugs sold by their chemical name; not brand (or trade) name
products
✔✔Trade name of a drug - ✔✔the name under which a manufacturer markets a
medication; also called the brand name
, ✔✔Pharmacodynamics - ✔✔The study of what the drug does to the body
✔✔Pharmacokinetics - ✔✔The process by which drugs are absorbed, distributed within
the body, metabolized, and excreted.
✔✔Absorption of drugs - ✔✔Transfer of drugs from site of administration across cell
membrane into the blood stream
✔✔What is the most common method of absorption of drugs in the body? - ✔✔passive
diffusion. the drug molecule moves according to the concentration gradient from a
higher drug concentration to a lower concentration until equilibrium is reached
✔✔Distribution of drugs - ✔✔-the transport of drugs from the plasma to the tissues (site
of action, site of storage, site of biotransformation)
-the movement of a drug to and from the blood and various tissues of the body (for
example, fat, muscle, and brain tissue) and the relative proportions of drug in the
tissues.
✔✔Biotransformation - ✔✔One or more biochemical reactions involving a parent drug;
occurs mainly in the liver and produces a metabolite that is either inactive or active. Also
known as metabolism.
✔✔Metabolism of drugs - ✔✔All the chemical and physical reactions that the body
carries out to prepare a drug for excretion.
✔✔Where are most drugs metabolized? - ✔✔In the liver
(some but not many metabolize in the blood plasma and kidneys)
✔✔Biotransformation (drug metabolism) - ✔✔metabolism or chemical changes to
medicines in the body. Most drug molecules are transformed in the liver.
✔✔What affects drug absorption? - ✔✔-physicochemical properties (e.g. solubility)
-drug formulation (e.g. tablets, capsules, solutions)
-the route of administration (e.g. oral, buccal, sublingual, rectal, parenteral, topical, or
inhaled)
-the rate of gastric emptying
✔✔What affects drug metabolism? - ✔✔age
drug-metabolizing enzymes,
first-pass effect,
nutritional status,
competition between drugs.
Individual drug metabolism rates (genetic factors) coexisting disorders (particularly
chronic liver disorders and advanced heart failure),
drug interactions (especially those involving induction or inhibition of metabolism).
SOLUTIONS GRADED A+
✔✔Hyperkalemia - ✔✔excessive potassium in the blood
✔✔Hyperkalemia causes - ✔✔M.A.C.H.I.N.E.
M - Medications - ACE inhibitors, NSAIDS
A - Acidosis - Metabolic and respiratory
C - Cellular destruction - Burns, traumatic injury
H - Hypoaldosteronism, hemolysis
I - Intake - Excesssive
N - Nephrons, renal failure
E - Excretion - Impaired
✔✔Hyperkalemia S/S - ✔✔M.U.R.D.E.R.
M - Muscle weakness
U - Urine, oliguria, anuria
R- Respiratory distress
D - Decreased cardiac contractility
E - ECG changes
R - Reflexes, hyperreflexia, or areflexia (flaccid)
✔✔Hypocalcemia - ✔✔an abnormally low level of calcium in the blood
✔✔Hypocalcemia causes - ✔✔*Inadequate dietary intake of calcium*
*Inhibited absorption of calcium from the intestinal tract*
*Inadequate vitamin D consumption*
Diarrhea
Long-term immobilization and *bone demineralization*
Excessive gastrointestinal losses from diarrhea or wound draining
*End-stage* renal disease
*Calcium-excreting medications* such as diuretics, caffeine, anticonvulsants, heparin,
laxatives, and nicotine
*Decrease secretion of parathyroid hormone*
Acute pancreatitis
Crohn's disease
*Excessive administration of blood*
✔✔Hypocalcemia S/S - ✔✔C.A.T.S.
C - Convulsions
A- Arrhythmias
T - Tetany (involuntary contraction of muscles)
S - Spasms and stridor
,✔✔What is pharmacology? - ✔✔the study of drugs and their interactions with living
systems
✔✔Drug classification - ✔✔A method of grouping drugs; may be based on structure or
therapeutic use.
✔✔Drug Development Phases - ✔✔Preclinical - 1-4 years - in vitro screening, molecular
Biology studies, Molecule discovery and characterization.
Phase 0 - 3-6 years - animal trials.
Phase 1 - 3-6 years - Assess toxicity, evaluate route, determine safe dosages
Phase 2 - 5-9 years - evaluate effectiveness and determine side effects.
Phase 3 - 8-12 years - validate effectiveness.
FDA Approval - market introduction.
✔✔Preclinical phase (drug development) - ✔✔exploring efficacy and safety before it's
administered to patients
Company files IND if this passes safely so they can try it on patients
✔✔Phase 0 (drug development) - ✔✔animal trials
✔✔Phase 1 (drug development) - ✔✔*Refers to the first time humans are given the
drug
*Subjects are healthy young adults (usually)
*limited subject # (20-80)
*Non blinded phase that tests pharmacokinetics
✔✔Phase 2 (drug development) - ✔✔Conducted on several hundred patients with
specific disease to determine short-term safety and effectiveness of the drug
✔✔Phase 3 (drug development) - ✔✔Large number of patients, 1000-3000 in medical
research centers receive the drug. Provides info about infrequent or rare side effects.
Double blind study.
✔✔FDA drug approval process - ✔✔A pharmaceutical company seeking FDA approval
to sell a new prescription drug must complete a five-step process: discovery/concept,
preclinical research, clinical research, FDA review and FDA post-market safety
monitoring
✔✔Generic Drugs - ✔✔Drugs sold by their chemical name; not brand (or trade) name
products
✔✔Trade name of a drug - ✔✔the name under which a manufacturer markets a
medication; also called the brand name
, ✔✔Pharmacodynamics - ✔✔The study of what the drug does to the body
✔✔Pharmacokinetics - ✔✔The process by which drugs are absorbed, distributed within
the body, metabolized, and excreted.
✔✔Absorption of drugs - ✔✔Transfer of drugs from site of administration across cell
membrane into the blood stream
✔✔What is the most common method of absorption of drugs in the body? - ✔✔passive
diffusion. the drug molecule moves according to the concentration gradient from a
higher drug concentration to a lower concentration until equilibrium is reached
✔✔Distribution of drugs - ✔✔-the transport of drugs from the plasma to the tissues (site
of action, site of storage, site of biotransformation)
-the movement of a drug to and from the blood and various tissues of the body (for
example, fat, muscle, and brain tissue) and the relative proportions of drug in the
tissues.
✔✔Biotransformation - ✔✔One or more biochemical reactions involving a parent drug;
occurs mainly in the liver and produces a metabolite that is either inactive or active. Also
known as metabolism.
✔✔Metabolism of drugs - ✔✔All the chemical and physical reactions that the body
carries out to prepare a drug for excretion.
✔✔Where are most drugs metabolized? - ✔✔In the liver
(some but not many metabolize in the blood plasma and kidneys)
✔✔Biotransformation (drug metabolism) - ✔✔metabolism or chemical changes to
medicines in the body. Most drug molecules are transformed in the liver.
✔✔What affects drug absorption? - ✔✔-physicochemical properties (e.g. solubility)
-drug formulation (e.g. tablets, capsules, solutions)
-the route of administration (e.g. oral, buccal, sublingual, rectal, parenteral, topical, or
inhaled)
-the rate of gastric emptying
✔✔What affects drug metabolism? - ✔✔age
drug-metabolizing enzymes,
first-pass effect,
nutritional status,
competition between drugs.
Individual drug metabolism rates (genetic factors) coexisting disorders (particularly
chronic liver disorders and advanced heart failure),
drug interactions (especially those involving induction or inhibition of metabolism).
