MODULE 1
Psychology
The term psychology is derived from two Greek words psyche meaning soul and
logos meaning science or study of a subject. Thus, psychology was a study of the soul
or mind.
But since then, it has moved away considerably from this focus and established itself
as a scientific discipline which deals with processes underlying human experience
and behaviour.
psychology is defined formally as a science which studies mental processes,
experiences and behaviour in different contexts.
it uses methods of biological and social sciences to obtain data systematically. It
makes sense of these data so that they can be organized as knowledge.
Goals of Psychology
Watson (1913) declared that, as in other sciences, psychology’s “theoretical goal is
the prediction and control of behavior” (p. 158).
On the practical level, Watson (1924a) looked to a time when “we will have a
behavioristic ethics, experimental in type, which will tell us whether it is advisable
from the standpoint of present and future adjustments…”
History of Psychology
Philosopher Plato (427-347 BCE) and French Philosopher/Mathematician Rene
Descartes (1596- 1650), who were against of John Locke, believed that some knowledge
was born in humans.
Late 19th century- the start of the formal Psychology as a scientific discipline.
Early philosophy
From approximately 600 to 300 BC, Greek philosophers explored a wide range of
topics relating to what we now consider psychology.
Socrates and his followers, Plato and Aristotle, wrote about such topics as pleasure,
pain, knowledge, motivation, and rationality.
They theorized about whether human traits are innate or the product of experience,
which continues to be a topic of debate in psychology today.
They also considered the origins of mental illness, with both Socrates and Plato
focusing on psychological forces as the root of such illnesses.
17th Century
René Descartes, a French mathematician and philosopher from the 1600s, theorized
that the body and mind are separate entities, a concept that came to be known as
dualism.
According to dualism, the body is a physical entity with scientifically measurable
behavior, while the mind is a spiritual entity that cannot be measured because it
transcends the material world.
He believed that the being able to identify thoughts was the only way to truly know
that you existed.
Descartes believed that the two interacted only through a tiny structure at the base of
the brain called the pineal gland.
His emphasis on thought processes (cognition) influenced not only philosophy, but
also the field of psychology.
, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke were English philosophers from the 17th century
who disagreed with the concept of dualism.
They argued that all human experiences are physical processes occurring within the
brain and nervous system. Thus, their argument was that sensations, images, thoughts,
and feelings are all valid subjects of study.
Wilhem Wundt
established the first experimental laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, devoted to
psychological phenomena.
a professor of Biology in Germany
regarded as the “Father of Modern Psychology” -his aim was to study the building
blocks of mind
he considered psychology to be the study of conscious experience
Psychology was not considered an area of study until the 1870’s when the ideas of the
industrial revolution were applied to the fields of philosophy and physiology.
The German scientist Wilhelm Wundt opened the first laboratory and faculty of
Psychology in the University of Leipzig in 1879 and established the first
Psychological Journal in 1881.
He is estimated to have written over 54,000 pages of work He was the first to apply
the scientific method to the field.
G. Stanley Hall
One of Wundt’s students was G. Stanley Hall who was vital for bringing the science of
psychology to America.
He founded the American Psychological Association and became its first president, he started
America’s first research laboratory at John’s Hopkins University in 1883, he began the first
journal of psychology in America.
STRUCTURALISM VS FUNCTIONALISM
At this time, psychology split into two main schools: structuralism vs. functionalism.
Structuralists were led by Edward Tichner, they believed that the task of psychology was to
analyze consciousness into its basic elements and study how these were related. These
elements would include ideas like sensations, emotions, and images.
These investigations were based on introspection by trained subjects.
Introspection – careful, systematic self-observation of one’s own conscious experience.
Structuralism
Structuralism was the first school of psychology and focused on breaking
down mental processes into the most basic components.
Researchers tried to understand the basic elements of consciousness using a
method known as introspection.
Wilhelm Wundt, the founder of the first experimental psychology lab, is often
associated with this school of thought. However, Wundt referred to his view of
psychology as voluntarism.
A movement considered to be the first school of psychology as a science,
independent of philosophy.
Usually attributed to Wilhelm Wundt, but probably more strongly and directly
influenced by Edward Bradford Titchener, structuralism defined psychology as
the study of mental experience and sought to investigate the structure of such
, experience through a systematic program of experiments based on trained
introspection.
William James- functionalism
n. a general psychological approach that views mental life and behavior in
terms of active adaptation to environmental challenges and opportunities.
Functionalism was developed at the University of Chicago by
psychologists John Dewey, James R. Angell, and Harvey A. Carr at the
beginning of the 20th century as a revolt against the atomistic point of view of
structuralism, which limited psychology to the dissection of states of
consciousness and the study of mental content rather than mental activities.
The focus of functionalism reveals its debt to evolutionary concepts, to the act
psychology of Franz Brentano, and to the approach detailed by William James.
Functionalism became popular with the publication of Principles of
Psychology in 1890 by William James.
The work became the standard text for psychological departments and is still
required reading in many university programs.
Functionalism is the idea that psychology should focus on the function or
purpose of consciousness rather than its structure.
William James (1842–1910) was the first American psychologist who
espoused a different perspective on how psychology should operate. James was
introduced to Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection and accepted it as
an explanation of an organism’s characteristics.
Key to that theory is the idea that natural selection leads to organisms that are
adapted to their environment, including their behavior. Adaptation means that a
trait of an organism has a function for the survival and reproduction of the
individual, because it has been naturally selected.
As James saw it, psychology’s purpose was to study the function of behavior
in the world, and as such, his perspective was known
as functionalism.
Before long, however, psychologists suggested that psychology should not
concern itself with the structure of consciousness because, they argued,
consciousness was always changing so it had no basic structure.
Instead, they suggested that psychology should focus on the function or
purpose of consciousness and how it leads to adaptive behavior.
Difference between Structuralism and Functionalism
Structuralists focused their work on the laboratory and on sensation and
perception.
Functionalism took the field in new directions and focused on mental testing,
education, and adolescent development.
Functionalism’s practical application of early psychological principles led to
the formation of the next major development.
Modern perspectives
1.Biological Perspective-. Bio psychologists are interested in measuring biological,
physiological, and/or genetic variables and attempting to relate them to psychological or
, behavioral variables. Because all behavior is controlled by the central nervous system, bio
psychologists seek to understand how the brain functions in order to understand behavior.
2.Psychodynamic Perspective- Psychodynamic theory is an approach to psychology that
studies the psychological forces underlying human behavior, feelings, and emotions, and how
they may relate to early childhood experience.
This theory is especially interested in the dynamic relations between conscious and
unconscious motivation and asserts that behavior is the product of underlying conflicts over
which people often have little awareness.
3. Behaviourists Perspective- Behaviorism is an approach to psychology that emerged in the
early 20th century as a reaction to the psychoanalytic theory of the time. Psychoanalytic
theory often had difficulty making predictions that could be tested using rigorous
experimental methods.
The behaviorist school of thought maintains that behaviors can be described scientifically
without recourse either to internal physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such as
thoughts and beliefs. Rather than focusing on underlying conflicts, behaviorism focuses on
observable, overt behaviors that are learned from the environment.
4. Cross cultural Perspective- Sociocultural factors are the larger-scale forces within
cultures and societies that affect the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals.
These include forces such as attitudes, child-rearing practices, discrimination and prejudice,
ethnic and racial identity, gender roles and norms, family and kinship structures, power
dynamics, regional differences, religious beliefs and practices, rituals, and taboos.
Several sub fields within psychology seek to examine these sociocultural factors that
influence human mental states and behavior; among these are social psychology, cultural
psychology, and cultural-historical psychology.
5. Humanistic Perspective- Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective that rose
to prominence in the mid-20th century, drawing on the philosophies of existentialism and
phenomenology, as well as Eastern philosophy
It adopts a holistic approach to human existence through investigations of concepts such as
meaning, values, freedom, tragedy, personal responsibility, human potential, spirituality, and
self- actualization.
Behaviourism
n. an approach to psychology, formulated in 1913 by John B. Watson, based on the
study of objective, observable facts rather than subjective, qualitative processes, such
as feelings, motives, and consciousness.
To make psychology a naturalistic science, Watson proposed to limit it to quantitative
events, such as stimulus–response relationships, effects of conditioning, physiological
processes, and a study of human and animal behavior, all of which can best be
investigated through laboratory experiments that yield objective measures under
controlled conditions.
Historically, behaviorists held that mind was not a proper topic for scientific study
since mental events are subjective and not independently verifiable. With its emphasis
on activity as an adaptive function, behaviorism is seen as an outgrowth of
functionalism.
Psychology
The term psychology is derived from two Greek words psyche meaning soul and
logos meaning science or study of a subject. Thus, psychology was a study of the soul
or mind.
But since then, it has moved away considerably from this focus and established itself
as a scientific discipline which deals with processes underlying human experience
and behaviour.
psychology is defined formally as a science which studies mental processes,
experiences and behaviour in different contexts.
it uses methods of biological and social sciences to obtain data systematically. It
makes sense of these data so that they can be organized as knowledge.
Goals of Psychology
Watson (1913) declared that, as in other sciences, psychology’s “theoretical goal is
the prediction and control of behavior” (p. 158).
On the practical level, Watson (1924a) looked to a time when “we will have a
behavioristic ethics, experimental in type, which will tell us whether it is advisable
from the standpoint of present and future adjustments…”
History of Psychology
Philosopher Plato (427-347 BCE) and French Philosopher/Mathematician Rene
Descartes (1596- 1650), who were against of John Locke, believed that some knowledge
was born in humans.
Late 19th century- the start of the formal Psychology as a scientific discipline.
Early philosophy
From approximately 600 to 300 BC, Greek philosophers explored a wide range of
topics relating to what we now consider psychology.
Socrates and his followers, Plato and Aristotle, wrote about such topics as pleasure,
pain, knowledge, motivation, and rationality.
They theorized about whether human traits are innate or the product of experience,
which continues to be a topic of debate in psychology today.
They also considered the origins of mental illness, with both Socrates and Plato
focusing on psychological forces as the root of such illnesses.
17th Century
René Descartes, a French mathematician and philosopher from the 1600s, theorized
that the body and mind are separate entities, a concept that came to be known as
dualism.
According to dualism, the body is a physical entity with scientifically measurable
behavior, while the mind is a spiritual entity that cannot be measured because it
transcends the material world.
He believed that the being able to identify thoughts was the only way to truly know
that you existed.
Descartes believed that the two interacted only through a tiny structure at the base of
the brain called the pineal gland.
His emphasis on thought processes (cognition) influenced not only philosophy, but
also the field of psychology.
, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke were English philosophers from the 17th century
who disagreed with the concept of dualism.
They argued that all human experiences are physical processes occurring within the
brain and nervous system. Thus, their argument was that sensations, images, thoughts,
and feelings are all valid subjects of study.
Wilhem Wundt
established the first experimental laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, devoted to
psychological phenomena.
a professor of Biology in Germany
regarded as the “Father of Modern Psychology” -his aim was to study the building
blocks of mind
he considered psychology to be the study of conscious experience
Psychology was not considered an area of study until the 1870’s when the ideas of the
industrial revolution were applied to the fields of philosophy and physiology.
The German scientist Wilhelm Wundt opened the first laboratory and faculty of
Psychology in the University of Leipzig in 1879 and established the first
Psychological Journal in 1881.
He is estimated to have written over 54,000 pages of work He was the first to apply
the scientific method to the field.
G. Stanley Hall
One of Wundt’s students was G. Stanley Hall who was vital for bringing the science of
psychology to America.
He founded the American Psychological Association and became its first president, he started
America’s first research laboratory at John’s Hopkins University in 1883, he began the first
journal of psychology in America.
STRUCTURALISM VS FUNCTIONALISM
At this time, psychology split into two main schools: structuralism vs. functionalism.
Structuralists were led by Edward Tichner, they believed that the task of psychology was to
analyze consciousness into its basic elements and study how these were related. These
elements would include ideas like sensations, emotions, and images.
These investigations were based on introspection by trained subjects.
Introspection – careful, systematic self-observation of one’s own conscious experience.
Structuralism
Structuralism was the first school of psychology and focused on breaking
down mental processes into the most basic components.
Researchers tried to understand the basic elements of consciousness using a
method known as introspection.
Wilhelm Wundt, the founder of the first experimental psychology lab, is often
associated with this school of thought. However, Wundt referred to his view of
psychology as voluntarism.
A movement considered to be the first school of psychology as a science,
independent of philosophy.
Usually attributed to Wilhelm Wundt, but probably more strongly and directly
influenced by Edward Bradford Titchener, structuralism defined psychology as
the study of mental experience and sought to investigate the structure of such
, experience through a systematic program of experiments based on trained
introspection.
William James- functionalism
n. a general psychological approach that views mental life and behavior in
terms of active adaptation to environmental challenges and opportunities.
Functionalism was developed at the University of Chicago by
psychologists John Dewey, James R. Angell, and Harvey A. Carr at the
beginning of the 20th century as a revolt against the atomistic point of view of
structuralism, which limited psychology to the dissection of states of
consciousness and the study of mental content rather than mental activities.
The focus of functionalism reveals its debt to evolutionary concepts, to the act
psychology of Franz Brentano, and to the approach detailed by William James.
Functionalism became popular with the publication of Principles of
Psychology in 1890 by William James.
The work became the standard text for psychological departments and is still
required reading in many university programs.
Functionalism is the idea that psychology should focus on the function or
purpose of consciousness rather than its structure.
William James (1842–1910) was the first American psychologist who
espoused a different perspective on how psychology should operate. James was
introduced to Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection and accepted it as
an explanation of an organism’s characteristics.
Key to that theory is the idea that natural selection leads to organisms that are
adapted to their environment, including their behavior. Adaptation means that a
trait of an organism has a function for the survival and reproduction of the
individual, because it has been naturally selected.
As James saw it, psychology’s purpose was to study the function of behavior
in the world, and as such, his perspective was known
as functionalism.
Before long, however, psychologists suggested that psychology should not
concern itself with the structure of consciousness because, they argued,
consciousness was always changing so it had no basic structure.
Instead, they suggested that psychology should focus on the function or
purpose of consciousness and how it leads to adaptive behavior.
Difference between Structuralism and Functionalism
Structuralists focused their work on the laboratory and on sensation and
perception.
Functionalism took the field in new directions and focused on mental testing,
education, and adolescent development.
Functionalism’s practical application of early psychological principles led to
the formation of the next major development.
Modern perspectives
1.Biological Perspective-. Bio psychologists are interested in measuring biological,
physiological, and/or genetic variables and attempting to relate them to psychological or
, behavioral variables. Because all behavior is controlled by the central nervous system, bio
psychologists seek to understand how the brain functions in order to understand behavior.
2.Psychodynamic Perspective- Psychodynamic theory is an approach to psychology that
studies the psychological forces underlying human behavior, feelings, and emotions, and how
they may relate to early childhood experience.
This theory is especially interested in the dynamic relations between conscious and
unconscious motivation and asserts that behavior is the product of underlying conflicts over
which people often have little awareness.
3. Behaviourists Perspective- Behaviorism is an approach to psychology that emerged in the
early 20th century as a reaction to the psychoanalytic theory of the time. Psychoanalytic
theory often had difficulty making predictions that could be tested using rigorous
experimental methods.
The behaviorist school of thought maintains that behaviors can be described scientifically
without recourse either to internal physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such as
thoughts and beliefs. Rather than focusing on underlying conflicts, behaviorism focuses on
observable, overt behaviors that are learned from the environment.
4. Cross cultural Perspective- Sociocultural factors are the larger-scale forces within
cultures and societies that affect the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals.
These include forces such as attitudes, child-rearing practices, discrimination and prejudice,
ethnic and racial identity, gender roles and norms, family and kinship structures, power
dynamics, regional differences, religious beliefs and practices, rituals, and taboos.
Several sub fields within psychology seek to examine these sociocultural factors that
influence human mental states and behavior; among these are social psychology, cultural
psychology, and cultural-historical psychology.
5. Humanistic Perspective- Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective that rose
to prominence in the mid-20th century, drawing on the philosophies of existentialism and
phenomenology, as well as Eastern philosophy
It adopts a holistic approach to human existence through investigations of concepts such as
meaning, values, freedom, tragedy, personal responsibility, human potential, spirituality, and
self- actualization.
Behaviourism
n. an approach to psychology, formulated in 1913 by John B. Watson, based on the
study of objective, observable facts rather than subjective, qualitative processes, such
as feelings, motives, and consciousness.
To make psychology a naturalistic science, Watson proposed to limit it to quantitative
events, such as stimulus–response relationships, effects of conditioning, physiological
processes, and a study of human and animal behavior, all of which can best be
investigated through laboratory experiments that yield objective measures under
controlled conditions.
Historically, behaviorists held that mind was not a proper topic for scientific study
since mental events are subjective and not independently verifiable. With its emphasis
on activity as an adaptive function, behaviorism is seen as an outgrowth of
functionalism.
