R.M. Notes
Module 1
Research methodology:
Research method + ology It is a branch in which we study different research methods
by which we can proceed our research. The learning of the various techniques that can
be used in the conduct of research (in the conduct of tests, experiments, surveys etc.).
Research methodology aims at the employment of the correct procedures to find out
solutions.
Research means “search of searched, to elicit some facts out of known things.
Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical
sense.
According to Clifford Woody, research comprises of defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and
evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last, carefully
testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
Research methods are the methods that can be used to collect and analyze data.
Research methods involve conduct of experiments, tests, surveys etc. They aim at
finding solutions to research problems.
RESEARCH
Research is a systematic process of solving a problem or finding answers to an inquiry. It is
an organized method of finding a relatively new ideas from the existing body of knowledge
with the help of useful tool for the purpose of improving the quality of life.
It is a movement from known to unknown i.e. We start from that side which we already know
to that side which we want to know.
E.g.- Effects of stress on mental and physical health of youth. A study of causes of stress and
stress management among youth.
It can be scientific and non- scientific.
Scientific research acquires knowledge and truths about the data or information using
techniques that follow the scientific methods.
Steps in research process
Select a topic, define a problem, review the literature, formulate the hypothesis, choose a
research method, collect your data, analyse your data, disseminate your findings.
1. Formulating the research problem: There are two types of research problems,
viz., those which relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between
variables. The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem constitutes the
first step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research
problem, viz., understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into
meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
,2. Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it
should be written down. At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature
survey connected with the problem.
3. Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher
should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is
tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences.
Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has
to be tested.
4. Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in
clear cut terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have
to state the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation
of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal
information. Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz., (i) Exploration, (ii)
Description, (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation.
5. Determining sample design: All the items under consideration in any field of
inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the
‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all
the items are covered no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained.
6. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real life problem, it is often found that data at
hand are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate.
There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context
of money costs, time, and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
(i) By observation
(ii) Through personal interview
(iii) Through telephone interviews
(iv) By mailing of questionnaires
(v) Through schedules
7. Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the
research process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be
collected would be adequate and dependable. The researcher should see that the project is
executed in a systematic manner and in time.
8. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of
analyzing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding,
tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should necessarily be
condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher
should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories.
9. Hypothesis-testing: After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a
position to test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the
hypotheses, or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should be
answered while testing hypotheses. Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the
hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalizations
established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent
research in times to come.
10. Generalizations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several
times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory.
As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain
generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his
findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of
, interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further
research.
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the
report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping
in view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text,
and (iii) the end matter.
Non-scientific method-Is acquiring knowledge and truths about the world using
techniques that do not follow the scientific method that means there can't be any standard
/established recognized method.
These works will be claimed as research, but they will lack genuine evidence /experiments
etc. .and can't be replicated to get the similar results under similar conditions. E.g.-Internet
based study where source itself doubtful can be considered as non-scientific research.
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and
which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific
purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad
groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with
this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are
known as hypothesis-testing research studies).
Significance of research:
1. For researchers: Research may mean a way to attain high position in society.
2. For Professionals: Research may mean source of livelihood.
3. For philosophers and thinkers: Research may mean outlet for new ideas.
4. For youngsters: Research may mean development of new styles and behavior.
5. For analyst: Research may mean development of new theories.
Criteria for good research:
Good research should be systematic.
It should be logical.
It is empirical.
It is replicable.
, TYPES OF RESEARCH
Application based – pure research and applied research.
Objective- exploratory, descriptive, correlational, explanatory
types of information sought- quantitative and qualitative.
Types of Research
Pure research /Basic research –
These researches are done due to curiosity.
Analytical in nature
New knowledge from existing knowledge
These researches are primarily concerned with developing and formulating theories
.Eg Newton's law of gravitation, Maslow’s hierarchy of need
Applied Research/ Practical research –
Practical implementation of science
Synthesis (linking different sources) in nature
Is termed as ‘need based’ research having high practical relevance.
The basic aim of such research is to find solutions to problems being faced by the
society, government or the business.
Eg-Implementation of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs for the betterment of organization. How
can cyber security be improved.
Applied vs. Fundamental:
Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or pure)
research.
Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society
or an industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental research is mainly
concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering
knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”4 Research
concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of
fundamental research.
The central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing
practical problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that
has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body
of scientific knowledge
Difference between Pure Research and Applied Research
Pure Research
Theoretical
scientific
Only concept (When new concepts drawn from existing concepts)
Generalization
Basis of other research
Applied Research
Problem solving
Technological application
Action oriented
Real life application of natural science
Can be used to make social, economic, and educational policies.
Module 1
Research methodology:
Research method + ology It is a branch in which we study different research methods
by which we can proceed our research. The learning of the various techniques that can
be used in the conduct of research (in the conduct of tests, experiments, surveys etc.).
Research methodology aims at the employment of the correct procedures to find out
solutions.
Research means “search of searched, to elicit some facts out of known things.
Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical
sense.
According to Clifford Woody, research comprises of defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and
evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last, carefully
testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
Research methods are the methods that can be used to collect and analyze data.
Research methods involve conduct of experiments, tests, surveys etc. They aim at
finding solutions to research problems.
RESEARCH
Research is a systematic process of solving a problem or finding answers to an inquiry. It is
an organized method of finding a relatively new ideas from the existing body of knowledge
with the help of useful tool for the purpose of improving the quality of life.
It is a movement from known to unknown i.e. We start from that side which we already know
to that side which we want to know.
E.g.- Effects of stress on mental and physical health of youth. A study of causes of stress and
stress management among youth.
It can be scientific and non- scientific.
Scientific research acquires knowledge and truths about the data or information using
techniques that follow the scientific methods.
Steps in research process
Select a topic, define a problem, review the literature, formulate the hypothesis, choose a
research method, collect your data, analyse your data, disseminate your findings.
1. Formulating the research problem: There are two types of research problems,
viz., those which relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between
variables. The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem constitutes the
first step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research
problem, viz., understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into
meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
,2. Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it
should be written down. At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature
survey connected with the problem.
3. Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher
should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is
tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences.
Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has
to be tested.
4. Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in
clear cut terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have
to state the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation
of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal
information. Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz., (i) Exploration, (ii)
Description, (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation.
5. Determining sample design: All the items under consideration in any field of
inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the
‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all
the items are covered no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained.
6. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real life problem, it is often found that data at
hand are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate.
There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context
of money costs, time, and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
(i) By observation
(ii) Through personal interview
(iii) Through telephone interviews
(iv) By mailing of questionnaires
(v) Through schedules
7. Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the
research process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be
collected would be adequate and dependable. The researcher should see that the project is
executed in a systematic manner and in time.
8. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of
analyzing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding,
tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should necessarily be
condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher
should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories.
9. Hypothesis-testing: After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a
position to test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the
hypotheses, or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should be
answered while testing hypotheses. Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the
hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalizations
established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent
research in times to come.
10. Generalizations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several
times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory.
As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain
generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his
findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of
, interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further
research.
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the
report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping
in view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text,
and (iii) the end matter.
Non-scientific method-Is acquiring knowledge and truths about the world using
techniques that do not follow the scientific method that means there can't be any standard
/established recognized method.
These works will be claimed as research, but they will lack genuine evidence /experiments
etc. .and can't be replicated to get the similar results under similar conditions. E.g.-Internet
based study where source itself doubtful can be considered as non-scientific research.
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and
which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific
purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad
groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with
this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are
known as hypothesis-testing research studies).
Significance of research:
1. For researchers: Research may mean a way to attain high position in society.
2. For Professionals: Research may mean source of livelihood.
3. For philosophers and thinkers: Research may mean outlet for new ideas.
4. For youngsters: Research may mean development of new styles and behavior.
5. For analyst: Research may mean development of new theories.
Criteria for good research:
Good research should be systematic.
It should be logical.
It is empirical.
It is replicable.
, TYPES OF RESEARCH
Application based – pure research and applied research.
Objective- exploratory, descriptive, correlational, explanatory
types of information sought- quantitative and qualitative.
Types of Research
Pure research /Basic research –
These researches are done due to curiosity.
Analytical in nature
New knowledge from existing knowledge
These researches are primarily concerned with developing and formulating theories
.Eg Newton's law of gravitation, Maslow’s hierarchy of need
Applied Research/ Practical research –
Practical implementation of science
Synthesis (linking different sources) in nature
Is termed as ‘need based’ research having high practical relevance.
The basic aim of such research is to find solutions to problems being faced by the
society, government or the business.
Eg-Implementation of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs for the betterment of organization. How
can cyber security be improved.
Applied vs. Fundamental:
Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or pure)
research.
Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society
or an industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental research is mainly
concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering
knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”4 Research
concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of
fundamental research.
The central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing
practical problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that
has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body
of scientific knowledge
Difference between Pure Research and Applied Research
Pure Research
Theoretical
scientific
Only concept (When new concepts drawn from existing concepts)
Generalization
Basis of other research
Applied Research
Problem solving
Technological application
Action oriented
Real life application of natural science
Can be used to make social, economic, and educational policies.
