BIOS 252 Final Exam Study Guide
,BIOS 252 Final Exam Study Guide
Chapter 1 to 9
Review of all chapter (summaries)
Chapter 1 Review
Review
1.1 Anatomy and Physiology Defined
1. Anatomy is the science of body structures and the relationships among structures; physiology
is the science of body functions.
2. Dissection is the careful cutting apart of body structures to study their relationships.
3. Some branches of anatomy are embryology, developmental biology, cell biology, histology,
gross anatomy, systemic anatomy, regional anatomy, surface anatomy, radiographic anatomy,
and pathological anatomy (see Table 1.1).
4. Some branches of physiology are molecular physiology, neurophysiology, endocrinology,
cardiovascular physiology, immunology, respiratory physiology, renal physiology, exercise
physiology, and pathophysiology (see Table 1.1).
1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems
1. The human body consists of six levels of structural organization: chemical, cellular, tissue,
organ, system, and organismal.
2. Cells are the basic structural and functional living units of an organism and are the smallest
living units in the human body.
3. Tissues are groups of cells and the materials surrounding them that work together to perform a
particular function.
4. Organs are composed of two or more different types of tissues; they have specific functions
and usually have recognizable shapes.
5. Systems consist of related organs that have a common function.
6. An organism is any living individual.
7. Table 1.2 introduces the 11 systems of the human organism: the integumentary, skeletal,
muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and
reproductive systems.
1.3 Characteristics of the Living Human Organism
1. All organisms carry on certain processes that distinguish them from nonliving things.
2. Among the life processes in humans are metabolism, responsiveness, movement, growth,
differentiation, and reproduction.
1.4 Homeostasis
1. Homeostasis is the maintenance of relatively stable conditions in the body’s internal
environment produced by the interplay of all of the body’s regulatory processes.
2. Body fluids are dilute, watery solutions. Intracellular fluid (ICF) is inside cells, and
extracellular fluid (ECF) is outside cells. Plasma is the ECF within blood vessels. Interstitial
fluid is the ECF that fills spaces between tissue cells. Because it surrounds the cells of the body,
extracellular fluid is called the body’s internal environment.
3. Disruptions of homeostasis come from external and internal stimuli and psychological
stresses. When disruption of homeostasis is mild and temporary, responses of body cells quickly
, restore balance in the internal environment. If disruption is extreme, regulation of homeostasis
may fail.
4. Most often, the nervous and endocrine systems acting together or separately regulate
homeostasis. The nervous system detects body changes and sends nerve impulses to counteract
changes in controlled conditions. The endocrine system regulates homeostasis by secreting
hormones.
5. Feedback systems include three components: (1) Receptors monitor changes in a controlled
condition and send input to a control center (afferent pathway). (2) The control center sets the
value (set point) at which a controlled condition should be maintained, evaluates the input it
receives from receptors (efferent pathway), and generates output commands when they are
needed. (3) Effectors receive output from the control center and produce a response (effect) that
alters the controlled condition.
6. If a response reverses the original stimulus, the system is operating by negative feedback. If a
response enhances the original stimulus, the system is operating by positive feedback.
7. One example of negative feedback is the regulation of blood pressure. If a stimulus causes
blood pressure (controlled condition) to rise, baroreceptors (pressure-sensitive nerve cells, the
receptors) in blood vessels send impulses (input) to the brain (control center). The brain sends
impulses (output) to the heart (effector). As a result, heart rate decreases (response) and blood
pressure decreases to normal (restoration of homeostasis).
8. One example of positive feedback occurs during the birth of a baby. When labor begins, the
cervix of the uterus is stretched (stimulus), and stretch-sensitive nerve cells in the cervix
(receptors) send nerve impulses (input) to the brain (control center). The brain responds by
releasing oxytocin (output), which stimulates the uterus (effector) to contract more forcefully
(response). Movement of the fetus further stretches the cervix, more oxytocin is released, and
even more forceful contractions occur. The cycle is broken with the birth of the baby.
9. Disruptions of homeostasis—homeostatic imbalances—can lead to disorders, diseases, and
even death. A disorder is a general term for any abnormality of structure or function. A disease is
an illness with a definite set of signs and symptoms.
10. Symptoms are subjective changes in body functions that are not apparent to an observer;
signs are objective changes that can be observed and measured.
1.5 Basic Anatomical Terminology
1. Descriptions of any region of the body assume the body is in the anatomical position, in which
the subject stands erect facing the observer, with the head level and the eyes facing directly
forward. The feet are flat on the floor and directed forward, and the upper limbs are at the sides,
with the palms turned forward. A body lying facedown is prone; a body lying faceup is supine.
2. Regional names are terms given to specific regions of the body. The principal regions are the
head, neck, trunk, upper limbs, and lower limbs. Within the regions, specific body parts have
anatomical names and corresponding common names. Examples are thoracic (chest), nasal
(nose), and carpal (wrist).
3. Directional terms indicate the relationship of one part of the body to another. Exhibit
1 summarizes commonly used directional terms.
4. Planes are imaginary flat surfaces that are used to divide the body or organs to visualize
interior structures. A midsagittal plane divides the body or an organ into equal right and left
sides. A parasagittal plane divides the body or an organ into unequal right and left sides. A
frontal plane divides the body or an organ into anterior and posterior portions. A transverse plane
,BIOS 252 Final Exam Study Guide
Chapter 1 to 9
Review of all chapter (summaries)
Chapter 1 Review
Review
1.1 Anatomy and Physiology Defined
1. Anatomy is the science of body structures and the relationships among structures; physiology
is the science of body functions.
2. Dissection is the careful cutting apart of body structures to study their relationships.
3. Some branches of anatomy are embryology, developmental biology, cell biology, histology,
gross anatomy, systemic anatomy, regional anatomy, surface anatomy, radiographic anatomy,
and pathological anatomy (see Table 1.1).
4. Some branches of physiology are molecular physiology, neurophysiology, endocrinology,
cardiovascular physiology, immunology, respiratory physiology, renal physiology, exercise
physiology, and pathophysiology (see Table 1.1).
1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems
1. The human body consists of six levels of structural organization: chemical, cellular, tissue,
organ, system, and organismal.
2. Cells are the basic structural and functional living units of an organism and are the smallest
living units in the human body.
3. Tissues are groups of cells and the materials surrounding them that work together to perform a
particular function.
4. Organs are composed of two or more different types of tissues; they have specific functions
and usually have recognizable shapes.
5. Systems consist of related organs that have a common function.
6. An organism is any living individual.
7. Table 1.2 introduces the 11 systems of the human organism: the integumentary, skeletal,
muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and
reproductive systems.
1.3 Characteristics of the Living Human Organism
1. All organisms carry on certain processes that distinguish them from nonliving things.
2. Among the life processes in humans are metabolism, responsiveness, movement, growth,
differentiation, and reproduction.
1.4 Homeostasis
1. Homeostasis is the maintenance of relatively stable conditions in the body’s internal
environment produced by the interplay of all of the body’s regulatory processes.
2. Body fluids are dilute, watery solutions. Intracellular fluid (ICF) is inside cells, and
extracellular fluid (ECF) is outside cells. Plasma is the ECF within blood vessels. Interstitial
fluid is the ECF that fills spaces between tissue cells. Because it surrounds the cells of the body,
extracellular fluid is called the body’s internal environment.
3. Disruptions of homeostasis come from external and internal stimuli and psychological
stresses. When disruption of homeostasis is mild and temporary, responses of body cells quickly
, restore balance in the internal environment. If disruption is extreme, regulation of homeostasis
may fail.
4. Most often, the nervous and endocrine systems acting together or separately regulate
homeostasis. The nervous system detects body changes and sends nerve impulses to counteract
changes in controlled conditions. The endocrine system regulates homeostasis by secreting
hormones.
5. Feedback systems include three components: (1) Receptors monitor changes in a controlled
condition and send input to a control center (afferent pathway). (2) The control center sets the
value (set point) at which a controlled condition should be maintained, evaluates the input it
receives from receptors (efferent pathway), and generates output commands when they are
needed. (3) Effectors receive output from the control center and produce a response (effect) that
alters the controlled condition.
6. If a response reverses the original stimulus, the system is operating by negative feedback. If a
response enhances the original stimulus, the system is operating by positive feedback.
7. One example of negative feedback is the regulation of blood pressure. If a stimulus causes
blood pressure (controlled condition) to rise, baroreceptors (pressure-sensitive nerve cells, the
receptors) in blood vessels send impulses (input) to the brain (control center). The brain sends
impulses (output) to the heart (effector). As a result, heart rate decreases (response) and blood
pressure decreases to normal (restoration of homeostasis).
8. One example of positive feedback occurs during the birth of a baby. When labor begins, the
cervix of the uterus is stretched (stimulus), and stretch-sensitive nerve cells in the cervix
(receptors) send nerve impulses (input) to the brain (control center). The brain responds by
releasing oxytocin (output), which stimulates the uterus (effector) to contract more forcefully
(response). Movement of the fetus further stretches the cervix, more oxytocin is released, and
even more forceful contractions occur. The cycle is broken with the birth of the baby.
9. Disruptions of homeostasis—homeostatic imbalances—can lead to disorders, diseases, and
even death. A disorder is a general term for any abnormality of structure or function. A disease is
an illness with a definite set of signs and symptoms.
10. Symptoms are subjective changes in body functions that are not apparent to an observer;
signs are objective changes that can be observed and measured.
1.5 Basic Anatomical Terminology
1. Descriptions of any region of the body assume the body is in the anatomical position, in which
the subject stands erect facing the observer, with the head level and the eyes facing directly
forward. The feet are flat on the floor and directed forward, and the upper limbs are at the sides,
with the palms turned forward. A body lying facedown is prone; a body lying faceup is supine.
2. Regional names are terms given to specific regions of the body. The principal regions are the
head, neck, trunk, upper limbs, and lower limbs. Within the regions, specific body parts have
anatomical names and corresponding common names. Examples are thoracic (chest), nasal
(nose), and carpal (wrist).
3. Directional terms indicate the relationship of one part of the body to another. Exhibit
1 summarizes commonly used directional terms.
4. Planes are imaginary flat surfaces that are used to divide the body or organs to visualize
interior structures. A midsagittal plane divides the body or an organ into equal right and left
sides. A parasagittal plane divides the body or an organ into unequal right and left sides. A
frontal plane divides the body or an organ into anterior and posterior portions. A transverse plane
