2026- 2027 MCIM 223 Final What is Covered Review
(Principles of Microbiology and Immunology for Nursing)
University of Saskatchewan
Module 1 unit 2
Microbiology
- The study of microscopic life
History of Microbiology and how it began
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
- Used simple microscopes to study some natural environments
- Provided the first description of bacteria and other microbes
Robert Hooke (1665)
- Described fruiting structures of moulds
- First descriptions of microorganisms
Traditional medicine
- Moldy bread to treat skin wounds
- Mold was used as a source of antibiotics
Miasma theory
- Infectious diseases were caused by bad air (miasma) emitted by rotting organic matter
Ibn Sina in 1025
- basic contagion theory
Ibn Khanita and Ibn al-Khatib in 1300’s
- plague in Iberia, minute bodies transmitted by garments, vessel and earring
G. Fracastoro (1546)
- “Contagion Theory” → suggested that diseases can be transmitted by invisible particles
through direct or indirect contact “…. such things as clothes and linens which although
not themselves corrupt, can nevertheless foster the seeds of the contagion and thus cause
infection.”
Marcus von Plenciz in 1762
- animalcules in soil and air caused disease
John Snow in 1854
, - Cholera outbreak in London
L. Pasteur (1857)
- “Germ Theory” → suggested that microorganisms are the actual cause of many human
diseases (ie. are the “seeds” of contagion)
R. Koch (1876)
- Experimentally proves the Germ Theory by developing a set of criteria that must be
fulfilled in order to show a direct cause-effect relationship between a specific microbe
and a specific disease
Koch's Postulates
- Provided experimental evidence and framework for germ theory of disease
Module 2 unit 1
What are microbes
, - Tiny living things that are found all around us and are too small to be seen by the naked
eye.
Difference between Microbes
Prokaryotes
- Cells that do not contain nuclei
ex) Bacteria, Archaea
Eukaryote
- A cell that contains a nucleus and membrane bound organelles
ex) Fungi (yeasts, molds)
Algae
Protozoans
protist micro-animals
Viruses
Non-cellular microbes
Naming and classification
Genus
Species
ex) Escherichia Coli
Why do we name Bacteria
- Consistency in communication
- A way to assess the “relatedness” of different bacteria
How to determine bacteria are related
- The genus names are the same
MODULE 2 UNIT 2
Laboratory tools used to identify bacteria in a clinical setting:
- Light microscopy requires that bacteria be “stained” with colored dyes before being
observed under the microscope
- The Gram Stain: Uses a combination of colored dyes to divide bacteria into two broad
groups based on differences in cell surface structure; Purpose: To help determine the
name (genus + species) of unknown bacteria & As a rapid way to see if there are bacteria
in a body site where they should not normally be found
- Acid Fast Stain: Similar to the Gram Stain but with different dyes and an “acid-wash”
step.
MODULE 2 UNIT 3
The anatomy and physiology of bacteria (prokaryotic cells)
- Bacillus (rod), Coccus (round), or Spirochete (spiral) arranged as singles, pairs, clusters,
or chains
- Cytoplasm: [Gel-like internal contents of the cell (mostly water), Location of the genetic
material, Site of many cellular biochemical reactions]
, - Cell envelope: [ Multi-component “shell” that surrounds the cytoplasm, Structurally
different in Gram Negative vs Gram Positive]
- Cell surface (outside)
- Cell Membrane: Phospholipid layer + embedded proteins, Location of some “metabolic”
proteins
- Peptidoglycan: A structure found only in bacteria (not in archaea or eukaryotes), - Made
of repeating “units” of two carbohydrates + four amino acids, “3D cell wall”, formed in
layers, but many layers of PG can be built on top of each other to completely surround
the cell, an important structural component of bacteria – gives strength and rigidity to the
cell envelope and protects the cell against external stresses, can be broken apart by
antibiotics or certain enzymes produced by humans, The thickness of PG is the reason
Gram Positive and Gram Negative bacteria stain differently with the Gram stain
- Outer Membrane: A phospholipid layer that contains protein channels (porins) and
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) → Endotoxin only found in bacteria
- Acid-fast bacteria: Atypical cell envelope structure → Envelope = Inner membrane +
peptidoglycan + mycolic acid outer layer
- Atypical bacteria that lack cell walls
Module 2 unit 4
Anatomy and physiology of bacteria
Flagella
- Long, thick filaments capable of whip like or propeller- like motion
- Various in location and number per cell, depends on species
Pili
- Used to attach bacteria to other bacteria
- Shorter and thinner than flagella, cover entire cell
- 2 types
- Sex pilli- for attaching bacteria to other bacteria
- Common pilli- for attaching bacteria to eucaryotic cells and tissues
Bio films
- Sticky polysaccharide material that surrounds the entire cell
- A community of bacteria attached to a living or non- living surface encased in a matrix
Bacterial spores
- When a bacterial cell changes from a vegetative state (growing). Into a dromat, non
growing state ( a “spore”)
- Survival mechanism
- Triggered by environmental stress
MODULE 2 UNIT 5
Structure and configuration of DNA in bacteria
- Chromosome (→ in all bacteria)
- Plasmids (→ only in some bacteria)
(Principles of Microbiology and Immunology for Nursing)
University of Saskatchewan
Module 1 unit 2
Microbiology
- The study of microscopic life
History of Microbiology and how it began
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
- Used simple microscopes to study some natural environments
- Provided the first description of bacteria and other microbes
Robert Hooke (1665)
- Described fruiting structures of moulds
- First descriptions of microorganisms
Traditional medicine
- Moldy bread to treat skin wounds
- Mold was used as a source of antibiotics
Miasma theory
- Infectious diseases were caused by bad air (miasma) emitted by rotting organic matter
Ibn Sina in 1025
- basic contagion theory
Ibn Khanita and Ibn al-Khatib in 1300’s
- plague in Iberia, minute bodies transmitted by garments, vessel and earring
G. Fracastoro (1546)
- “Contagion Theory” → suggested that diseases can be transmitted by invisible particles
through direct or indirect contact “…. such things as clothes and linens which although
not themselves corrupt, can nevertheless foster the seeds of the contagion and thus cause
infection.”
Marcus von Plenciz in 1762
- animalcules in soil and air caused disease
John Snow in 1854
, - Cholera outbreak in London
L. Pasteur (1857)
- “Germ Theory” → suggested that microorganisms are the actual cause of many human
diseases (ie. are the “seeds” of contagion)
R. Koch (1876)
- Experimentally proves the Germ Theory by developing a set of criteria that must be
fulfilled in order to show a direct cause-effect relationship between a specific microbe
and a specific disease
Koch's Postulates
- Provided experimental evidence and framework for germ theory of disease
Module 2 unit 1
What are microbes
, - Tiny living things that are found all around us and are too small to be seen by the naked
eye.
Difference between Microbes
Prokaryotes
- Cells that do not contain nuclei
ex) Bacteria, Archaea
Eukaryote
- A cell that contains a nucleus and membrane bound organelles
ex) Fungi (yeasts, molds)
Algae
Protozoans
protist micro-animals
Viruses
Non-cellular microbes
Naming and classification
Genus
Species
ex) Escherichia Coli
Why do we name Bacteria
- Consistency in communication
- A way to assess the “relatedness” of different bacteria
How to determine bacteria are related
- The genus names are the same
MODULE 2 UNIT 2
Laboratory tools used to identify bacteria in a clinical setting:
- Light microscopy requires that bacteria be “stained” with colored dyes before being
observed under the microscope
- The Gram Stain: Uses a combination of colored dyes to divide bacteria into two broad
groups based on differences in cell surface structure; Purpose: To help determine the
name (genus + species) of unknown bacteria & As a rapid way to see if there are bacteria
in a body site where they should not normally be found
- Acid Fast Stain: Similar to the Gram Stain but with different dyes and an “acid-wash”
step.
MODULE 2 UNIT 3
The anatomy and physiology of bacteria (prokaryotic cells)
- Bacillus (rod), Coccus (round), or Spirochete (spiral) arranged as singles, pairs, clusters,
or chains
- Cytoplasm: [Gel-like internal contents of the cell (mostly water), Location of the genetic
material, Site of many cellular biochemical reactions]
, - Cell envelope: [ Multi-component “shell” that surrounds the cytoplasm, Structurally
different in Gram Negative vs Gram Positive]
- Cell surface (outside)
- Cell Membrane: Phospholipid layer + embedded proteins, Location of some “metabolic”
proteins
- Peptidoglycan: A structure found only in bacteria (not in archaea or eukaryotes), - Made
of repeating “units” of two carbohydrates + four amino acids, “3D cell wall”, formed in
layers, but many layers of PG can be built on top of each other to completely surround
the cell, an important structural component of bacteria – gives strength and rigidity to the
cell envelope and protects the cell against external stresses, can be broken apart by
antibiotics or certain enzymes produced by humans, The thickness of PG is the reason
Gram Positive and Gram Negative bacteria stain differently with the Gram stain
- Outer Membrane: A phospholipid layer that contains protein channels (porins) and
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) → Endotoxin only found in bacteria
- Acid-fast bacteria: Atypical cell envelope structure → Envelope = Inner membrane +
peptidoglycan + mycolic acid outer layer
- Atypical bacteria that lack cell walls
Module 2 unit 4
Anatomy and physiology of bacteria
Flagella
- Long, thick filaments capable of whip like or propeller- like motion
- Various in location and number per cell, depends on species
Pili
- Used to attach bacteria to other bacteria
- Shorter and thinner than flagella, cover entire cell
- 2 types
- Sex pilli- for attaching bacteria to other bacteria
- Common pilli- for attaching bacteria to eucaryotic cells and tissues
Bio films
- Sticky polysaccharide material that surrounds the entire cell
- A community of bacteria attached to a living or non- living surface encased in a matrix
Bacterial spores
- When a bacterial cell changes from a vegetative state (growing). Into a dromat, non
growing state ( a “spore”)
- Survival mechanism
- Triggered by environmental stress
MODULE 2 UNIT 5
Structure and configuration of DNA in bacteria
- Chromosome (→ in all bacteria)
- Plasmids (→ only in some bacteria)
