Boek Theories of Human Development
Hoofdstuk 1 Theories as windows for looking to see
Endogenous theories
Like rationalism, endogenous theories explain development as the result of predominantly
internal influences. Places primary emphasis on the organism’s internal nature, especially
those inner workings that are believed to produce human development.
- Some endogenous theories stress the view that developmental milestones and
stages are predetermined.
- Development as an unfolding of fixed patterns that are relatively impervious to
environmental conditions
- The theories of Freud and Erikson stress biological maturation as a developmental
change mechanism
Edward Wilson emphasizes development across the species (phylogenesis) rather than
development within the individual life span (ontogenesis).
Exogenous theories
Exogenous theories explain development as a result of specific environmental factors
external to the individual.
- The biological blueprint is viewed as a malleable plan of possibilities rather than
necessities
- Newborn seen as flexible and predisposed to conform to pressures exerted by
environmental factors
- Skinner’s operant conditioning is a good example
The nature versus nurture controversy
This is a theoretical battle between endogenous and exogenous explanations over what facts
mean, not what facts are. It is a theoretical debate over how best to interpret data.
Constructivist theories
Describe the course and constitutive properties of development. Development is viewed as a
synthesis of progressive organizations and reorganizations that are constructed in the
process of adapting to and interacting with the external world.
- New characteristics are created when individuals act on their environment
- People invent knowledge, and their intentions are gradually adjusted to reality
- Theories of Piaget and Kohlberg are good examples
Several important conditions:
1. Each one attempts to explain universal elements of human nature rather than
individual or culture-specific characteristics
2. Each theory is a relatively good example of its paradigm family
3. Each theory has easily identifiable structural components
4. Each theory has generated a sufficient body of supporting research to give it at least
a threshold level of scientific validity
, Hoofdstuk 6 Ainsworth and infant attachment
Among Bowlby’s most important early ideas is ‘maternal deprivation’, which posited that
infants should experience a warm, intimate and continuous relationship with their mother in
which both find satisfaction and enjoyment.
Mary Ainsworth is recognized with Bowlby as the co-founder of attachment theory. She was
the first to apply the term secure base, which described the psychological relationship
between infant and mother and it provided the infant a springboard for curiosity and
exploration.
To a large extent, the assumptions underlying Ainsworth’s theory of infant attachment can
be traced to the work of John Bowlby.
- Human infants exhibit an instinctive, species ‘propensity’ to seek proximity and
contact.
- Attachment is a social rather than biological phenomenon.
- Attachment is instinctively proactive and needs no external motivation.
- The attachment behavior system is goal-corrected.
Ainsworth designed the strange situation method. Throughout the strange situation, the
baby’s responses are observed and video-recorded. Ainsworth incorporates two important
internal principles:
- Activators control the appearance of attachment behaviors. Activators for human
infants include a variety of stimuli such as strange situations, frightening events, cold,
distance, time lapse since the last contact with the attachment figure and rebuffs
from other children or adults.
- Terminators are connected to the attachment figure. Proximity or contact typically
terminates attachment behaviors. The intensity of attachment behaviors varies
according to the perceived threat, so different terminators may be necessary in
different situations.
Ainsworth maintains that attachment behaviors develop in four phases:
1. Undiscriminating social responsiveness. During the infants first 2-3 months, they
orient to prominent environmental features, particularly other people. They do not
discriminate between different human adults who may respond to their overtures.
2. Discriminating social responsiveness. Between 3 and 6 months, infants continue to
orient and signal, but they differentiate between familiar and unfamiliar.
3. Active initiative seeking in proximity and contact. Around 7 months, infants signals
are no longer merely expressive or reactive, but rather are intended to evoke a
response from the primary caretaker.
4. Goal-corrected partnership. Around the age of 3 and involves infant-caretaker
reciprocity.
Hoofdstuk 7 Operant conditioning
The central tenet of behaviorism is that psychology should occupy itself with the study of
observable, measurable behavior. Two forms:
- Methodological behaviorism; presumes tat inner experiences (thoughts, ideas,
feelings) do not exist because they are unobservable. As a consequence, these
entities cannot be properly or scientifically studied.
Hoofdstuk 1 Theories as windows for looking to see
Endogenous theories
Like rationalism, endogenous theories explain development as the result of predominantly
internal influences. Places primary emphasis on the organism’s internal nature, especially
those inner workings that are believed to produce human development.
- Some endogenous theories stress the view that developmental milestones and
stages are predetermined.
- Development as an unfolding of fixed patterns that are relatively impervious to
environmental conditions
- The theories of Freud and Erikson stress biological maturation as a developmental
change mechanism
Edward Wilson emphasizes development across the species (phylogenesis) rather than
development within the individual life span (ontogenesis).
Exogenous theories
Exogenous theories explain development as a result of specific environmental factors
external to the individual.
- The biological blueprint is viewed as a malleable plan of possibilities rather than
necessities
- Newborn seen as flexible and predisposed to conform to pressures exerted by
environmental factors
- Skinner’s operant conditioning is a good example
The nature versus nurture controversy
This is a theoretical battle between endogenous and exogenous explanations over what facts
mean, not what facts are. It is a theoretical debate over how best to interpret data.
Constructivist theories
Describe the course and constitutive properties of development. Development is viewed as a
synthesis of progressive organizations and reorganizations that are constructed in the
process of adapting to and interacting with the external world.
- New characteristics are created when individuals act on their environment
- People invent knowledge, and their intentions are gradually adjusted to reality
- Theories of Piaget and Kohlberg are good examples
Several important conditions:
1. Each one attempts to explain universal elements of human nature rather than
individual or culture-specific characteristics
2. Each theory is a relatively good example of its paradigm family
3. Each theory has easily identifiable structural components
4. Each theory has generated a sufficient body of supporting research to give it at least
a threshold level of scientific validity
, Hoofdstuk 6 Ainsworth and infant attachment
Among Bowlby’s most important early ideas is ‘maternal deprivation’, which posited that
infants should experience a warm, intimate and continuous relationship with their mother in
which both find satisfaction and enjoyment.
Mary Ainsworth is recognized with Bowlby as the co-founder of attachment theory. She was
the first to apply the term secure base, which described the psychological relationship
between infant and mother and it provided the infant a springboard for curiosity and
exploration.
To a large extent, the assumptions underlying Ainsworth’s theory of infant attachment can
be traced to the work of John Bowlby.
- Human infants exhibit an instinctive, species ‘propensity’ to seek proximity and
contact.
- Attachment is a social rather than biological phenomenon.
- Attachment is instinctively proactive and needs no external motivation.
- The attachment behavior system is goal-corrected.
Ainsworth designed the strange situation method. Throughout the strange situation, the
baby’s responses are observed and video-recorded. Ainsworth incorporates two important
internal principles:
- Activators control the appearance of attachment behaviors. Activators for human
infants include a variety of stimuli such as strange situations, frightening events, cold,
distance, time lapse since the last contact with the attachment figure and rebuffs
from other children or adults.
- Terminators are connected to the attachment figure. Proximity or contact typically
terminates attachment behaviors. The intensity of attachment behaviors varies
according to the perceived threat, so different terminators may be necessary in
different situations.
Ainsworth maintains that attachment behaviors develop in four phases:
1. Undiscriminating social responsiveness. During the infants first 2-3 months, they
orient to prominent environmental features, particularly other people. They do not
discriminate between different human adults who may respond to their overtures.
2. Discriminating social responsiveness. Between 3 and 6 months, infants continue to
orient and signal, but they differentiate between familiar and unfamiliar.
3. Active initiative seeking in proximity and contact. Around 7 months, infants signals
are no longer merely expressive or reactive, but rather are intended to evoke a
response from the primary caretaker.
4. Goal-corrected partnership. Around the age of 3 and involves infant-caretaker
reciprocity.
Hoofdstuk 7 Operant conditioning
The central tenet of behaviorism is that psychology should occupy itself with the study of
observable, measurable behavior. Two forms:
- Methodological behaviorism; presumes tat inner experiences (thoughts, ideas,
feelings) do not exist because they are unobservable. As a consequence, these
entities cannot be properly or scientifically studied.
