UNIT 1
Wednesday, 02 April 2025 23:56
INTRODUCTION
The mid-19th century saw major changes in European science, with technological discoveries revolutionizing industries. Amid this
upheaval, psychology emerged as a new science focused on understanding human nature. Unlike other sciences, psychology had ancient
origins but lacked data and theories until then. This unit introduces psychology as a science, defining it and exploring its approaches,
goals, and key philosophical issues. It also discusses types of psychological research, ethical considerations, and various subfields within
psychology.
DEFINING PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology originates from the Greek words psyche (soul) and logos (study). It is the scientific study of behaviours and mental processes.
Behaviours include observable actions of humans and animals, while mental processes refer to internal experiences like thoughts,
perceptions, memories, and emotions.
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
Humans have always sought to understand, predict, and control their world, often relying on faith—belief without proof. Science,
however, requires systematic observation and experimentation to gain knowledge. Psychology, as a science, is based on factual
statements and theories derived from controlled research. Before the 19th century, psychology was not considered a science because it
lacked testable hypotheses. Science differs from everyday beliefs by emphasizing objectivity—drawing conclusions based on facts rather
than personal emotions or biases, unlike subjective opinions.
THE GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY
DESCRIPTION-(WHAT IS IT?)
The first goal of psychology is to describe how organisms behave. This involves careful observation of what happens, where, to whom,
and under what circumstances. For example, a psychologist might observe an increase in young people being treated for STIs without
recalling how they were infected. This highlights a problem that requires further investigation to understand its causes.
EXPLANATION-(WHY IS IT HAPPENING?)
After observing a pattern, a psychologist forms a tentative explanation, such as linking risky sexual behaviour to alcohol consumption.
This step aims to understand and explain why the observed behaviour occurs.
PREDICTION-(WHEN WILL IT HAPPEN AGAIN?)
Prediction in psychology involves forecasting future behaviour based on research findings. For example, studies suggest that alcohol
consumption may lead young people to engage in risky sexual behaviour. This helps psychologists anticipate how behaviour might
change in certain situations.
CONTROL-(HOW CAN IT BE CHANGED?)
The goal of control in psychology focuses on modifying behaviour to replace undesirable actions with desirable ones. For example,
psychologists may try to reduce risky sexual behaviour by increasing awareness of substance use effects. Interventions highlighting the
negative impact of alcohol could encourage young people to make safer choices. Behaviourism emphasizes that psychology should
predict and control behaviour for societal benefit.
WHAT IS A THEORY?
In psychology, theories explain various phenomena, such as human behaviour, and predict how these phenomena might change over
time or under certain conditions. These theories are based on research evidence and are tested through critical thinking. When research
doesn’t support a theory, it may be revised or discarded. Good theories not only explain facts but also generate predictions, often in a
precise, mathematical form.
Theories are important because they:
1. Help us understand and predict behaviour.
2. Give meaning to facts and integrate new information.
PYC1502 Page 1
, 2. Give meaning to facts and integrate new information.
3. Explain observations and contribute to knowledge.
4. Provide a basis for practical action when verified by research.
In evaluating theories, psychologists often follow the principle of parsimony, which suggests that the simplest explanation is usually the
correct one. This principle is also known as "KISS" (Keep It Simple, Stupid).
APPROACHES TO THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY
The term "psychology" appeared in the English press in 1853, though Greek philosophers had long explored psychological issues. Before
the 19th century, psychology was not considered a science because it lacked systematic methods and testable hypotheses. By the 1850s,
however, there was growing interest among scientists to measure and describe the natural world, including the human mind.
STRUCTURALISM
Psychology's origins date back to 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt
focused on analysing consciousness, which includes subjective experiences like sight, sound, and feelings. He developed structuralism,
which aimed to break down the mind into basic elements such as sensations and feelings. This approach was later expanded by Edward
Titchener. To study the mind, Wundt and other structuralists used introspection, where participants described their experiences in
response to stimuli. However, introspection was criticized for being too subjective, leading to the decline of structuralism. It was
eventually replaced by functionalism, a new perspective in psychology.
FUNCTIONALISM
William James disagreed with structuralism's idea of breaking consciousness into separate elements. Instead, he developed
functionalism, which focused on understanding the purpose of mental processes in helping people adapt to their environments.
Functionalism looked at the function of consciousness and how behaviour helps individuals meet their needs and adapt. It became
prominent in the early 1900s, with figures like John Dewey applying it to school psychology to improve educational approaches.
BEHAVIOURISM
The behavioural perspective, led by John B. Watson, emphasized studying observable behaviour rather than private experiences, which
he believed were too subjective for scientific study. Watson argued that psychology should focus on behaviours because they can be
objectively measured. The goal of scientific psychology, he suggested, was to predict and control behaviour to benefit society. Later, B.F.
Skinner advanced behaviourism by developing operant conditioning, which explains how voluntary behaviour is learned. Skinner's
theory suggests that behaviours followed by positive consequences are reinforced, while those followed by negative consequences are
punished.
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
Gestalt psychology, developed in the 1900s, focused on how people perceive the whole rather than just the individual parts. Gestalt
theorists like Wertheimer, Kohler, and Koffka emphasized that perception is organized and that the whole is different from the sum of
its parts. In other words, when the basic elements of perception are considered together, they create a more meaningful experience
than when viewed separately. Today, Gestalt ideas are integrated into cognitive psychology, which studies perception, memory,
learning, and thinking.
HUMANISM
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow were key figures in the development of humanism, a perspective that emphasizes people's ability to
shape their future, achieve personal growth, and realize their full potential. Humanism views behaviour as influenced by an individual’s
capacity to make choices, rather than by instincts, biological processes, or external rewards and punishments. It focuses on free will,
self-actualization (achieving one's full potential), and personal perception of the world. Today, humanistic ideas are widely used in
psychotherapy for self-understanding and improvement.
PSYCHOANALYSIS
Sigmund Freud, a physician, believed that all behaviour and mental processes have physical causes in the nervous system. He developed
psychoanalysis, a theory emphasizing the role of unconscious mental processes in shaping thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. Freud's
work was inspired by patients with physical ailments that had no clear cause, leading him to believe that these issues were actually
rooted in unconscious psychological problems. He proposed that mental conflicts, often unconscious, motivate all behaviour, including
everyday actions and severe mental disorders. Though not universally accepted, Freud's theories significantly influenced psychology and
other fields.
THE COMPONENTS OF SCIENTIFIC THINKING
PYC1502 Page 2
,THE COMPONENTS OF SCIENTIFIC THINKING
ONTOLOGICAL COMPONENT
Ontology in psychology refers to the study of the fundamental nature of the objects of research, which are human behaviour and
experiences. A key idea in this field comes from René Descartes, who proposed a distinction between the mind and the body. This raises
a debate: if the mind is a by-product of the body, humans are purely physical beings, but if the mind exists separately, then humans are
composed of both physical and mental components. These differing views influence psychological thought.
EPISTEMOLOGICAL COMPONENT
Epistemology in psychology refers to how we gain knowledge about the object of research. Scientific knowledge differs from popular
beliefs because it relies on facts, which are statements agreed upon by all researchers. However, the challenge lies in verifying whether
these facts are truly accurate. Psychologists use various methods to test these facts. The traditional approach defines truth as
correspondence with reality, meaning a fact is true if it matches reality. But this raises the question of what reality is and how we can
know it. The focus is now on uncovering reality through scientific study.
METHODOLOGICAL COMPONENT
Methodology refers to the understanding of the methods used to obtain scientific knowledge. All research studies follow specific phases,
regardless of the methods applied, to ensure a systematic approach to scientific inquiry.
IDEOLOGICAL COMPONENT
The ideological component in research aims to reduce subjectivity and increase objectivity, though true neutrality is difficult to achieve.
Researchers' perspectives and social contexts influence their studies. Socio-economic and socio-political factors play a significant role in
shaping research agendas and methodologies. (Van Deventer & Mojapelo-Batka, 2013).
MAJOR PHILOSOPHICAL ISSUES IN PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology, like other sciences, is shaped by various philosophical issues that have intrigued great thinkers throughout history. This
section examines some of these key issues in psychology.
NATURE VS NURTURE CONTROVERSY
The nature vs. nurture debate explores whether human development and behaviour result from biological inheritance (nature) or
environmental influences (nurture). This discussion dates back to Greek philosophers, with Plato supporting nativism (nature) and
Aristotle advocating empiricism (nurture). The term "nature vs. nurture" was coined by Galton in relation to intelligence. Nature refers
to genetic inheritance, while nurture involves environmental influences. John Locke supported the nurture perspective, proposing that
the mind is a "blank slate" shaped by experiences. Similarly, John B. Watson, the founder of behaviourism, believed that behaviour is
entirely moulded by the environment. Conversely, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and psychologist Arnold Gesell supported the nature
perspective, suggesting that development follows a biologically determined sequence. Gesell found that children's motor skills develop
in a fixed order, largely unaffected by the environment. Psychologists’ views on this debate often align with their theoretical
perspectives. Biological psychologists emphasize heredity, while behavioural psychologists focus on environmental influences. However,
modern psychology acknowledges that both heredity and environment interact to shape behaviour and development.
PYC1502 Page 3
, CONSCIOUS VS UNCONSCIOUS CAUSES OF BEHAVIOUR
The debate between conscious and unconscious causes of behaviour explores how much of our actions are driven by factors we're
aware of, and how much by unconscious processes. Clinical psychologists with a psychodynamic perspective believe that much of
abnormal behaviour is influenced by unconscious factors, while cognitive psychologists argue that faulty thinking processes are the main
cause. The approach taken in this debate significantly impacts how abnormal behaviour is diagnosed and treated.
OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOUR VS INTERNAL MENTAL PROCESSES
The debate between observable behaviour and internal mental processes centers on whether psychology should focus solely on actions
we can see or also include the unseen thinking processes behind those actions. Behavioural psychologists argue that only observable
behaviour is valid data, while cognitive psychologists believe that understanding mental processes is crucial to fully understanding
behaviour.
FREE WILL VS DETERMINISM
The free will vs. determinism debate in psychology focuses on whether our behaviour is the result of free choice or determined by
external factors. Some psychologists argue that individuals make choices and should be accountable for their actions, while others
believe that behaviour, especially abnormal behaviour, is influenced by forces beyond an individual's control. This debate affects how
psychologists approach the treatment of abnormal behaviour.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES VS UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES
The debate about behaviour in psychology centers on whether our actions are shaped more by universal human traits or by our unique
qualities influenced by culture and society. Biological psychologists focus on universal principles, like the workings of the nervous
system, while humanistic psychologists emphasize the individuality of each person and how their behaviour reflects their distinct
qualities.
TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY
Research is a systematic process aimed at discovering new knowledge and is essential to the scientific method in psychology. It helps
evaluate the accuracy of theories and hypotheses.
ARCHIVAL RESEARCH
Archival research involves analysing existing data, such as census records or college documents, to test hypotheses. It's cost-effective
since the data has already been collected. However, it has limitations, such as incomplete or poorly organized data, or the absence of
necessary records. When archival research is insufficient, researchers may use naturalistic observation as an alternative.
NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
Naturalistic observation involves watching behaviour in its natural setting without interference. The researcher simply observes and
records what happens, such as studying helping behaviour in a high-crime area. The advantage is that it captures real, unaltered actions.
However, the limitations include the inability to control variables, and if participants know they're being observed, they may alter their
behaviour, which could affect the authenticity of the findings.
SURVEY RESEARCH
Survey research involves asking a sample of people questions about their behaviour, thoughts, or attitudes to represent a larger
population. It can be done through interviews or questionnaires and is widely used in areas like politics and advertising. While surveys
can be highly accurate with a small, representative sample, they have drawbacks. Respondents may provide inaccurate answers due to
memory lapses, social desirability, or reluctance to disclose sensitive information. Additionally, if the sample isn't representative, the
results may not be meaningful.
CASE STUDY
Case study research involves in-depth examination of a particular individual, group, or situation, often used for studying complex or rare
phenomena. It may include psychological testing to gain insights into personality. The goal is not only to understand the specific case but
also to apply findings to broader psychological knowledge. For example, Sigmund Freud used case studies to develop his theories, and
modern case studies can help identify patterns in behaviours, like those of suicide bombers.
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
In correlational research, the goal is to determine the relationship between two variables. Variables are factors that can be measured or
PYC1502 Page 4
Wednesday, 02 April 2025 23:56
INTRODUCTION
The mid-19th century saw major changes in European science, with technological discoveries revolutionizing industries. Amid this
upheaval, psychology emerged as a new science focused on understanding human nature. Unlike other sciences, psychology had ancient
origins but lacked data and theories until then. This unit introduces psychology as a science, defining it and exploring its approaches,
goals, and key philosophical issues. It also discusses types of psychological research, ethical considerations, and various subfields within
psychology.
DEFINING PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology originates from the Greek words psyche (soul) and logos (study). It is the scientific study of behaviours and mental processes.
Behaviours include observable actions of humans and animals, while mental processes refer to internal experiences like thoughts,
perceptions, memories, and emotions.
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
Humans have always sought to understand, predict, and control their world, often relying on faith—belief without proof. Science,
however, requires systematic observation and experimentation to gain knowledge. Psychology, as a science, is based on factual
statements and theories derived from controlled research. Before the 19th century, psychology was not considered a science because it
lacked testable hypotheses. Science differs from everyday beliefs by emphasizing objectivity—drawing conclusions based on facts rather
than personal emotions or biases, unlike subjective opinions.
THE GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY
DESCRIPTION-(WHAT IS IT?)
The first goal of psychology is to describe how organisms behave. This involves careful observation of what happens, where, to whom,
and under what circumstances. For example, a psychologist might observe an increase in young people being treated for STIs without
recalling how they were infected. This highlights a problem that requires further investigation to understand its causes.
EXPLANATION-(WHY IS IT HAPPENING?)
After observing a pattern, a psychologist forms a tentative explanation, such as linking risky sexual behaviour to alcohol consumption.
This step aims to understand and explain why the observed behaviour occurs.
PREDICTION-(WHEN WILL IT HAPPEN AGAIN?)
Prediction in psychology involves forecasting future behaviour based on research findings. For example, studies suggest that alcohol
consumption may lead young people to engage in risky sexual behaviour. This helps psychologists anticipate how behaviour might
change in certain situations.
CONTROL-(HOW CAN IT BE CHANGED?)
The goal of control in psychology focuses on modifying behaviour to replace undesirable actions with desirable ones. For example,
psychologists may try to reduce risky sexual behaviour by increasing awareness of substance use effects. Interventions highlighting the
negative impact of alcohol could encourage young people to make safer choices. Behaviourism emphasizes that psychology should
predict and control behaviour for societal benefit.
WHAT IS A THEORY?
In psychology, theories explain various phenomena, such as human behaviour, and predict how these phenomena might change over
time or under certain conditions. These theories are based on research evidence and are tested through critical thinking. When research
doesn’t support a theory, it may be revised or discarded. Good theories not only explain facts but also generate predictions, often in a
precise, mathematical form.
Theories are important because they:
1. Help us understand and predict behaviour.
2. Give meaning to facts and integrate new information.
PYC1502 Page 1
, 2. Give meaning to facts and integrate new information.
3. Explain observations and contribute to knowledge.
4. Provide a basis for practical action when verified by research.
In evaluating theories, psychologists often follow the principle of parsimony, which suggests that the simplest explanation is usually the
correct one. This principle is also known as "KISS" (Keep It Simple, Stupid).
APPROACHES TO THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY
The term "psychology" appeared in the English press in 1853, though Greek philosophers had long explored psychological issues. Before
the 19th century, psychology was not considered a science because it lacked systematic methods and testable hypotheses. By the 1850s,
however, there was growing interest among scientists to measure and describe the natural world, including the human mind.
STRUCTURALISM
Psychology's origins date back to 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt
focused on analysing consciousness, which includes subjective experiences like sight, sound, and feelings. He developed structuralism,
which aimed to break down the mind into basic elements such as sensations and feelings. This approach was later expanded by Edward
Titchener. To study the mind, Wundt and other structuralists used introspection, where participants described their experiences in
response to stimuli. However, introspection was criticized for being too subjective, leading to the decline of structuralism. It was
eventually replaced by functionalism, a new perspective in psychology.
FUNCTIONALISM
William James disagreed with structuralism's idea of breaking consciousness into separate elements. Instead, he developed
functionalism, which focused on understanding the purpose of mental processes in helping people adapt to their environments.
Functionalism looked at the function of consciousness and how behaviour helps individuals meet their needs and adapt. It became
prominent in the early 1900s, with figures like John Dewey applying it to school psychology to improve educational approaches.
BEHAVIOURISM
The behavioural perspective, led by John B. Watson, emphasized studying observable behaviour rather than private experiences, which
he believed were too subjective for scientific study. Watson argued that psychology should focus on behaviours because they can be
objectively measured. The goal of scientific psychology, he suggested, was to predict and control behaviour to benefit society. Later, B.F.
Skinner advanced behaviourism by developing operant conditioning, which explains how voluntary behaviour is learned. Skinner's
theory suggests that behaviours followed by positive consequences are reinforced, while those followed by negative consequences are
punished.
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
Gestalt psychology, developed in the 1900s, focused on how people perceive the whole rather than just the individual parts. Gestalt
theorists like Wertheimer, Kohler, and Koffka emphasized that perception is organized and that the whole is different from the sum of
its parts. In other words, when the basic elements of perception are considered together, they create a more meaningful experience
than when viewed separately. Today, Gestalt ideas are integrated into cognitive psychology, which studies perception, memory,
learning, and thinking.
HUMANISM
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow were key figures in the development of humanism, a perspective that emphasizes people's ability to
shape their future, achieve personal growth, and realize their full potential. Humanism views behaviour as influenced by an individual’s
capacity to make choices, rather than by instincts, biological processes, or external rewards and punishments. It focuses on free will,
self-actualization (achieving one's full potential), and personal perception of the world. Today, humanistic ideas are widely used in
psychotherapy for self-understanding and improvement.
PSYCHOANALYSIS
Sigmund Freud, a physician, believed that all behaviour and mental processes have physical causes in the nervous system. He developed
psychoanalysis, a theory emphasizing the role of unconscious mental processes in shaping thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. Freud's
work was inspired by patients with physical ailments that had no clear cause, leading him to believe that these issues were actually
rooted in unconscious psychological problems. He proposed that mental conflicts, often unconscious, motivate all behaviour, including
everyday actions and severe mental disorders. Though not universally accepted, Freud's theories significantly influenced psychology and
other fields.
THE COMPONENTS OF SCIENTIFIC THINKING
PYC1502 Page 2
,THE COMPONENTS OF SCIENTIFIC THINKING
ONTOLOGICAL COMPONENT
Ontology in psychology refers to the study of the fundamental nature of the objects of research, which are human behaviour and
experiences. A key idea in this field comes from René Descartes, who proposed a distinction between the mind and the body. This raises
a debate: if the mind is a by-product of the body, humans are purely physical beings, but if the mind exists separately, then humans are
composed of both physical and mental components. These differing views influence psychological thought.
EPISTEMOLOGICAL COMPONENT
Epistemology in psychology refers to how we gain knowledge about the object of research. Scientific knowledge differs from popular
beliefs because it relies on facts, which are statements agreed upon by all researchers. However, the challenge lies in verifying whether
these facts are truly accurate. Psychologists use various methods to test these facts. The traditional approach defines truth as
correspondence with reality, meaning a fact is true if it matches reality. But this raises the question of what reality is and how we can
know it. The focus is now on uncovering reality through scientific study.
METHODOLOGICAL COMPONENT
Methodology refers to the understanding of the methods used to obtain scientific knowledge. All research studies follow specific phases,
regardless of the methods applied, to ensure a systematic approach to scientific inquiry.
IDEOLOGICAL COMPONENT
The ideological component in research aims to reduce subjectivity and increase objectivity, though true neutrality is difficult to achieve.
Researchers' perspectives and social contexts influence their studies. Socio-economic and socio-political factors play a significant role in
shaping research agendas and methodologies. (Van Deventer & Mojapelo-Batka, 2013).
MAJOR PHILOSOPHICAL ISSUES IN PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology, like other sciences, is shaped by various philosophical issues that have intrigued great thinkers throughout history. This
section examines some of these key issues in psychology.
NATURE VS NURTURE CONTROVERSY
The nature vs. nurture debate explores whether human development and behaviour result from biological inheritance (nature) or
environmental influences (nurture). This discussion dates back to Greek philosophers, with Plato supporting nativism (nature) and
Aristotle advocating empiricism (nurture). The term "nature vs. nurture" was coined by Galton in relation to intelligence. Nature refers
to genetic inheritance, while nurture involves environmental influences. John Locke supported the nurture perspective, proposing that
the mind is a "blank slate" shaped by experiences. Similarly, John B. Watson, the founder of behaviourism, believed that behaviour is
entirely moulded by the environment. Conversely, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and psychologist Arnold Gesell supported the nature
perspective, suggesting that development follows a biologically determined sequence. Gesell found that children's motor skills develop
in a fixed order, largely unaffected by the environment. Psychologists’ views on this debate often align with their theoretical
perspectives. Biological psychologists emphasize heredity, while behavioural psychologists focus on environmental influences. However,
modern psychology acknowledges that both heredity and environment interact to shape behaviour and development.
PYC1502 Page 3
, CONSCIOUS VS UNCONSCIOUS CAUSES OF BEHAVIOUR
The debate between conscious and unconscious causes of behaviour explores how much of our actions are driven by factors we're
aware of, and how much by unconscious processes. Clinical psychologists with a psychodynamic perspective believe that much of
abnormal behaviour is influenced by unconscious factors, while cognitive psychologists argue that faulty thinking processes are the main
cause. The approach taken in this debate significantly impacts how abnormal behaviour is diagnosed and treated.
OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOUR VS INTERNAL MENTAL PROCESSES
The debate between observable behaviour and internal mental processes centers on whether psychology should focus solely on actions
we can see or also include the unseen thinking processes behind those actions. Behavioural psychologists argue that only observable
behaviour is valid data, while cognitive psychologists believe that understanding mental processes is crucial to fully understanding
behaviour.
FREE WILL VS DETERMINISM
The free will vs. determinism debate in psychology focuses on whether our behaviour is the result of free choice or determined by
external factors. Some psychologists argue that individuals make choices and should be accountable for their actions, while others
believe that behaviour, especially abnormal behaviour, is influenced by forces beyond an individual's control. This debate affects how
psychologists approach the treatment of abnormal behaviour.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES VS UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES
The debate about behaviour in psychology centers on whether our actions are shaped more by universal human traits or by our unique
qualities influenced by culture and society. Biological psychologists focus on universal principles, like the workings of the nervous
system, while humanistic psychologists emphasize the individuality of each person and how their behaviour reflects their distinct
qualities.
TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY
Research is a systematic process aimed at discovering new knowledge and is essential to the scientific method in psychology. It helps
evaluate the accuracy of theories and hypotheses.
ARCHIVAL RESEARCH
Archival research involves analysing existing data, such as census records or college documents, to test hypotheses. It's cost-effective
since the data has already been collected. However, it has limitations, such as incomplete or poorly organized data, or the absence of
necessary records. When archival research is insufficient, researchers may use naturalistic observation as an alternative.
NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
Naturalistic observation involves watching behaviour in its natural setting without interference. The researcher simply observes and
records what happens, such as studying helping behaviour in a high-crime area. The advantage is that it captures real, unaltered actions.
However, the limitations include the inability to control variables, and if participants know they're being observed, they may alter their
behaviour, which could affect the authenticity of the findings.
SURVEY RESEARCH
Survey research involves asking a sample of people questions about their behaviour, thoughts, or attitudes to represent a larger
population. It can be done through interviews or questionnaires and is widely used in areas like politics and advertising. While surveys
can be highly accurate with a small, representative sample, they have drawbacks. Respondents may provide inaccurate answers due to
memory lapses, social desirability, or reluctance to disclose sensitive information. Additionally, if the sample isn't representative, the
results may not be meaningful.
CASE STUDY
Case study research involves in-depth examination of a particular individual, group, or situation, often used for studying complex or rare
phenomena. It may include psychological testing to gain insights into personality. The goal is not only to understand the specific case but
also to apply findings to broader psychological knowledge. For example, Sigmund Freud used case studies to develop his theories, and
modern case studies can help identify patterns in behaviours, like those of suicide bombers.
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
In correlational research, the goal is to determine the relationship between two variables. Variables are factors that can be measured or
PYC1502 Page 4
