VERBAL LEARNING
Verbal learning is a process of acquiring and using new responses. It is the process of learning to respond
verbally to a verbal stimulus cue. It entails word usage; we may therefore refer to it as the process of acquiring
and using words in communication. It involves the use of language in a wide variety of human tasks. Ellis
(1972) construes it as any learning situation in which the task requires the learner to respond to verbal
materials such as words.
● According to Wetting and Belkin (1990) verbal learning is a species specific behaviour for
humans. It is therefore only humans that have the capacity to use words in a boundless number of
ways. Man has an enormous and unique capacity for communication. Word usage which is the
basis of verbal learning is both a reflection and a determinant of mental growth.
People learn how to communicate; they learn how to use expressive and receptive language. The words that
people use in communication have multiple meanings, this would expectedly make communication difficult
to occur. It is important to note therefore that word usage in communication is complex and requires some
skills. Hence, Skinner (1957) noted that language is a behaviour that is controlled in predictable ways by
various variables acting on and in people. That being the case, the factors that provide for the individual
some motivations, the stimuli that affect them, and their earlier learning all contribute to their acquisition of
language. Word usage must be applied in a way that conveys meaning. Words are not used arbitrarily, their
usage follows certain patterns (sometimes defined, sometimes implied). Because of the fact that "words"
could have different meanings, their usage for effective communication depends directly on the context
within which they are used, as well as the elements and rules of the grammar of a given language, etc.
The acquisition of verbal skills (skills involved in word usage and language) requires study. The study of such
skills requires time and planning since a good understanding of word structure for instance is a requirement
for verbal learning.
Methods that are used in verbal learning
In verbal learning usually three techniques are most often used, namely; serial learning, free recall learning
and paired-associate learning.
● Serial learning: This is a process of learning items in a particular order. This procedure involves
presenting a learner with a set of items to be learned. The items are presented to the learner in a
specific order. The learner goes through the exercise (that is learning the material), at the end he is
expected to recall the items as were presented (i.e. in the order it was learned). Any task that requires
one to learn a series of verbal responses in a particular meaningful order constitutes serial learning.
If one engages in serial learning, he will typically have the greatest trouble with the items in the
middle of the list of items. For example, when one is learning a set of words, and is asked to recall
them, in most cases, the first and the last set of the words would usually be recalled while the middle
ones always tend to be forgotten. Observation would show that in this method, the first and last
items in a list are generally learned more quickly than middle items. Examples of serial learning
include, learning the letters of the alphabets, days of the week, the months of the year and so on.
● Free recall learning: In this type of learning there is no particular order of learning and recall. The
learner is merely presented with the materials which he could recall or produce in any order he
prefers. In other words after the learner is exposed to a series of verbal materials he is required to
recall the material. He does this in the way that is convenient to him. The effectiveness of the free
recall method depends on how the verbal materials are presented to the learner. There are two
important methods of presentation of verbal materials for free recall learning:
, ○ The verbal units can be presented to the learner one at a time using some device (e.g.
memory drum). To accomplish this, it is important to fix a duration during which the
learner is to be exposed to the verbal units. A duration of exposure of about two seconds
per item is recommended. After the first exposure the process is repeated or practiced for
some time. At the end of the practice, the learner can be assessed to find out how many of
the verbal units or items he can recall.
○ In the second method, the learner is presented with a large amount of verbal material in
one slot. They are then given a specific time interval to study the materials, with the
duration based on the number of items. At the end of the study time, the learner's recall is
examined. To learn a vast range of verbal materials using this method, the learner typically
organizes the materials into categories or clusters, which is an organizational process. Free
recall, when a high percentage of facts are recalled, is a crucial method of verbal learning.
● Paired-associate learning: This is a form of sign learning in which a learner learns to respond to
the first item in a pair by giving the second. Usually, a particular stimulus is linked with a particular
response. In paired associate learning the task of the learner is to associate pairs of items, stimulus to
response (Gagne, 1977; Umoren, Elim, Atambi, & Otoby 2010). When the stimulus or cue is
presented, the learner should be able to make the correct response. In this method, one of the pairs
is the stimulus and the other the response. It is the responsibility of the teacher to designate which
item serves as the cue and which serves as the response. Normally, the stimulus would serve as a cue
to the response. For example, a teacher pairing the following words, "banana": "mboro", "plantain":
"ukom", "coconut": "isip" . The teacher here is employing a paired associated method in teaching
pupils in the school the English words listed with their vernacular (Efik) version. Paired associate
method is employed in teaching learner's words and their opposite; words and words that are similar
to them in meaning. It could be used to teach foreign words. Vocabulary learning of foreign or a
new language is the most typical example of paired associates learning method in verbal learning.
○ It is important to note at this point the fact that paired associate learning is a complex
learning method. It cannot therefore be classified under rote learning as some authors have
attempted to do. In paired associate learning unlike rote learning, the learner knowingly or
unknowingly gets actively involved in the processes involved in the learning. Some of the
processes which the learner may get involved in this way in paired associate learning
include, stimulus discrimination and coding, association formation, mediation and
organization (Nwankwo, 2001). The above mentioned processes which the learner
indulges in make paired associate learning possible and less stressful.
Additional methods employed in verbal learning have been advanced by Thompson (1978). These methods
however are implied in the three major methods of verbal learning earlier discussed. The methods are:
recognition learning and verbal discrimination learning.
● Recognition learning Method: In this type of learning, the learner's ability to recognise a set of
verbal units earlier presented to him or her is assessed. There are two phases or episodes involved
here, the practical/trial and testing phases. The practical/trial phase or episode is the period during
which a list of verbal materials is presented to the learner for observation and internalization. This
phase is then followed by the testing phase. During the testing phase, the learner is re-presented with
the verbal materials which he/she was earlier exposed to and also presented with a new set of similar
verbal materials which serve as distractors. The learner is then required to recognize and clearly
distinguish the original set of items from the new ones by identifying and mentioning either the old
or the new items after a careful examination of each of the items presented in phase two.
Thompson (1978) asserts that recognition learning is employed quite often by individuals in their
Verbal learning is a process of acquiring and using new responses. It is the process of learning to respond
verbally to a verbal stimulus cue. It entails word usage; we may therefore refer to it as the process of acquiring
and using words in communication. It involves the use of language in a wide variety of human tasks. Ellis
(1972) construes it as any learning situation in which the task requires the learner to respond to verbal
materials such as words.
● According to Wetting and Belkin (1990) verbal learning is a species specific behaviour for
humans. It is therefore only humans that have the capacity to use words in a boundless number of
ways. Man has an enormous and unique capacity for communication. Word usage which is the
basis of verbal learning is both a reflection and a determinant of mental growth.
People learn how to communicate; they learn how to use expressive and receptive language. The words that
people use in communication have multiple meanings, this would expectedly make communication difficult
to occur. It is important to note therefore that word usage in communication is complex and requires some
skills. Hence, Skinner (1957) noted that language is a behaviour that is controlled in predictable ways by
various variables acting on and in people. That being the case, the factors that provide for the individual
some motivations, the stimuli that affect them, and their earlier learning all contribute to their acquisition of
language. Word usage must be applied in a way that conveys meaning. Words are not used arbitrarily, their
usage follows certain patterns (sometimes defined, sometimes implied). Because of the fact that "words"
could have different meanings, their usage for effective communication depends directly on the context
within which they are used, as well as the elements and rules of the grammar of a given language, etc.
The acquisition of verbal skills (skills involved in word usage and language) requires study. The study of such
skills requires time and planning since a good understanding of word structure for instance is a requirement
for verbal learning.
Methods that are used in verbal learning
In verbal learning usually three techniques are most often used, namely; serial learning, free recall learning
and paired-associate learning.
● Serial learning: This is a process of learning items in a particular order. This procedure involves
presenting a learner with a set of items to be learned. The items are presented to the learner in a
specific order. The learner goes through the exercise (that is learning the material), at the end he is
expected to recall the items as were presented (i.e. in the order it was learned). Any task that requires
one to learn a series of verbal responses in a particular meaningful order constitutes serial learning.
If one engages in serial learning, he will typically have the greatest trouble with the items in the
middle of the list of items. For example, when one is learning a set of words, and is asked to recall
them, in most cases, the first and the last set of the words would usually be recalled while the middle
ones always tend to be forgotten. Observation would show that in this method, the first and last
items in a list are generally learned more quickly than middle items. Examples of serial learning
include, learning the letters of the alphabets, days of the week, the months of the year and so on.
● Free recall learning: In this type of learning there is no particular order of learning and recall. The
learner is merely presented with the materials which he could recall or produce in any order he
prefers. In other words after the learner is exposed to a series of verbal materials he is required to
recall the material. He does this in the way that is convenient to him. The effectiveness of the free
recall method depends on how the verbal materials are presented to the learner. There are two
important methods of presentation of verbal materials for free recall learning:
, ○ The verbal units can be presented to the learner one at a time using some device (e.g.
memory drum). To accomplish this, it is important to fix a duration during which the
learner is to be exposed to the verbal units. A duration of exposure of about two seconds
per item is recommended. After the first exposure the process is repeated or practiced for
some time. At the end of the practice, the learner can be assessed to find out how many of
the verbal units or items he can recall.
○ In the second method, the learner is presented with a large amount of verbal material in
one slot. They are then given a specific time interval to study the materials, with the
duration based on the number of items. At the end of the study time, the learner's recall is
examined. To learn a vast range of verbal materials using this method, the learner typically
organizes the materials into categories or clusters, which is an organizational process. Free
recall, when a high percentage of facts are recalled, is a crucial method of verbal learning.
● Paired-associate learning: This is a form of sign learning in which a learner learns to respond to
the first item in a pair by giving the second. Usually, a particular stimulus is linked with a particular
response. In paired associate learning the task of the learner is to associate pairs of items, stimulus to
response (Gagne, 1977; Umoren, Elim, Atambi, & Otoby 2010). When the stimulus or cue is
presented, the learner should be able to make the correct response. In this method, one of the pairs
is the stimulus and the other the response. It is the responsibility of the teacher to designate which
item serves as the cue and which serves as the response. Normally, the stimulus would serve as a cue
to the response. For example, a teacher pairing the following words, "banana": "mboro", "plantain":
"ukom", "coconut": "isip" . The teacher here is employing a paired associated method in teaching
pupils in the school the English words listed with their vernacular (Efik) version. Paired associate
method is employed in teaching learner's words and their opposite; words and words that are similar
to them in meaning. It could be used to teach foreign words. Vocabulary learning of foreign or a
new language is the most typical example of paired associates learning method in verbal learning.
○ It is important to note at this point the fact that paired associate learning is a complex
learning method. It cannot therefore be classified under rote learning as some authors have
attempted to do. In paired associate learning unlike rote learning, the learner knowingly or
unknowingly gets actively involved in the processes involved in the learning. Some of the
processes which the learner may get involved in this way in paired associate learning
include, stimulus discrimination and coding, association formation, mediation and
organization (Nwankwo, 2001). The above mentioned processes which the learner
indulges in make paired associate learning possible and less stressful.
Additional methods employed in verbal learning have been advanced by Thompson (1978). These methods
however are implied in the three major methods of verbal learning earlier discussed. The methods are:
recognition learning and verbal discrimination learning.
● Recognition learning Method: In this type of learning, the learner's ability to recognise a set of
verbal units earlier presented to him or her is assessed. There are two phases or episodes involved
here, the practical/trial and testing phases. The practical/trial phase or episode is the period during
which a list of verbal materials is presented to the learner for observation and internalization. This
phase is then followed by the testing phase. During the testing phase, the learner is re-presented with
the verbal materials which he/she was earlier exposed to and also presented with a new set of similar
verbal materials which serve as distractors. The learner is then required to recognize and clearly
distinguish the original set of items from the new ones by identifying and mentioning either the old
or the new items after a careful examination of each of the items presented in phase two.
Thompson (1978) asserts that recognition learning is employed quite often by individuals in their
