Chapter 2
Personality
,Introduction to Personality
The word ‘personality’ is derived from the Latin word ‘persona’, which means a mask or false
face which Greek actors used to wear when acting on stage. The original meaning has remained
essentially unchanged and today too a, layman associates personality with external appearances
because one’s personality is one’s stimulus value, or the impression one's behavior, albeit not
external behavior only, makes upon others.
Over the years, numerous definitions of personality have been provided by researchers
trying to understand such individual differences. One such definition of personality was given by
Gordon Allport (1957). According to him, "Personality is the dynamic organization within the
individual of those psychophysical systems that (determine his unique adjustments to his
environment. It has also been defined as an individual's unique and relatively stable patterns of
behavior, thoughts and emotions (Burger, 1990). Other definitions of personality are given
below:
'Personality is the quality of the individual's total behavior; it is how he acts, when his activity is
taken as a whole (Woodworth, 1929).
Personality is the sum total of what an individual has come to be by learning the cultural products
of social evolution (Morrison, 1934).
Personality is the integrated organization of all the pervasive characteristics of an individual as it
manifests itself in focal distinctness to others (Hartmann, 1941)
Personality is the complete and unified outcome of all the developmental processes through
which an individual has passed (Judd, 1939).
One of the major approaches to understanding personality was to develop theories on what it
was. There are many broad personality theories, which can be grouped into four categories:
(l) Dynamic approaches, which emphasize on-going interaction among motives, impulses, and
psychological processes.
(2) Type and trait approaches, which focus on people's characteristics, stubbornness, shyness and
so forth-and how these characteristics are organized into systems.
(3) Humanistic approaches, which emphasize the self and the importance of the individual's
subjective view of the world.
(4) Learning and behavioral approaches, which emphasize the way habits are acquired through
basic learning process.
Theories of Personality
I. Dynamic Theories of Personality
Dynamic approaches, involve a search for the processes by which needs, motives, and
impulses-often hidden from view-interact to produce the individual's behavior. Dynamic theories
, are often criticized because they have a tendency to over interpret - that is, to attribute deeper
meaning to behavior than the behavior really warrants. A related criticism is that dynamic
theorists often make claims about personality processes without testing them scientifically. Both
criticisms are often applied to Freud's theory, which remain in some respects one of the least
substantiated of the major personality theories. However, Freud's is also the most influential and
the most comprehensive theory of personality. It has had a major impact on psychology,
sociology, anthropology and literature-indeed, on western thought in general. Currently, its
influence is fading a little because there is so little scientific evidence for his theory.
Nevertheless, it has added such a profound perspective to the understanding of personality, that
even today it is a much used method of psychotherapy, applied by many psychologists to add a
deeper meaning to behavior. As a result, no examination of personality theories would be
complete without a careful look at his monumental contribution.
A) PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY-SIGMUND FREUD
Even though Freud's theory was one of the most criticized theories, it was also one' of the most
influential and comprehensive theories of personality. Freud stated the importance of childhood
experiences in determining adult personality and the role of anxiety and guilt in psychopathology.
But the most significant contribution was Freud's concept of the unconscious and the role it plays
in behavior. .
Levels of Consciousness: Freud viewed himself as a scientist, and he was well aware of research
on thresholds for sensory experience. Freud applied some of these ideas to the task of
understanding the human mind, and reached the startling conclusion that most of the mind lies
below the surface-below the threshold of conscious experience. Above this threshold is the realm
of the conscious. This includes our current thought: whatever we are thinking about or
experiencing at a given moment. Beneath the conscious realm is the much larger preconscious.
This contains memories that are not part of current thoughts but can readily be brought to mind if
the need arises. Similar, in fact, to the long-term memory. Finally, beneath the preconscious, and
forming the bulk of the human mind, is the, unconscious: thoughts, desires, and impulses of
which we remain largely unaware. Although some of this material has always been unconscious,
Freud believed, much of, it was once conscious but has been actively repressed--driven from
consciousness because it was too anxiety provoking. For' example, according to Freud; shameful
experiences or unacceptable sexual or aggressive urges are often driven deep within the
unconscious, The fact that we are not aware of the unconscious, however, in no way prevents it
from affecting our behavior. Indeed, Freud believed that many of the symptoms experienced by
his patients were disguised and indirect reflections of repressed thoughts and desires. This is why
one major goal of psychoanalysis-the method of treating psychological disorders devised by
Freud-is to bring repressed material back into consciousness. Presumably, once this material is
made conscious, it can be dealt with more effectively, and important causes of mental illness may
be eliminated.
Structure of Personality: Freud suggested that personality consists largely of three parts: the id,
the ego, and the Superego' As well soon see, these correspond rough1y to desire, reason, and
conscience.
The id, or desire, consists of all-our primitive, innate urges. These include various bodily
Personality
,Introduction to Personality
The word ‘personality’ is derived from the Latin word ‘persona’, which means a mask or false
face which Greek actors used to wear when acting on stage. The original meaning has remained
essentially unchanged and today too a, layman associates personality with external appearances
because one’s personality is one’s stimulus value, or the impression one's behavior, albeit not
external behavior only, makes upon others.
Over the years, numerous definitions of personality have been provided by researchers
trying to understand such individual differences. One such definition of personality was given by
Gordon Allport (1957). According to him, "Personality is the dynamic organization within the
individual of those psychophysical systems that (determine his unique adjustments to his
environment. It has also been defined as an individual's unique and relatively stable patterns of
behavior, thoughts and emotions (Burger, 1990). Other definitions of personality are given
below:
'Personality is the quality of the individual's total behavior; it is how he acts, when his activity is
taken as a whole (Woodworth, 1929).
Personality is the sum total of what an individual has come to be by learning the cultural products
of social evolution (Morrison, 1934).
Personality is the integrated organization of all the pervasive characteristics of an individual as it
manifests itself in focal distinctness to others (Hartmann, 1941)
Personality is the complete and unified outcome of all the developmental processes through
which an individual has passed (Judd, 1939).
One of the major approaches to understanding personality was to develop theories on what it
was. There are many broad personality theories, which can be grouped into four categories:
(l) Dynamic approaches, which emphasize on-going interaction among motives, impulses, and
psychological processes.
(2) Type and trait approaches, which focus on people's characteristics, stubbornness, shyness and
so forth-and how these characteristics are organized into systems.
(3) Humanistic approaches, which emphasize the self and the importance of the individual's
subjective view of the world.
(4) Learning and behavioral approaches, which emphasize the way habits are acquired through
basic learning process.
Theories of Personality
I. Dynamic Theories of Personality
Dynamic approaches, involve a search for the processes by which needs, motives, and
impulses-often hidden from view-interact to produce the individual's behavior. Dynamic theories
, are often criticized because they have a tendency to over interpret - that is, to attribute deeper
meaning to behavior than the behavior really warrants. A related criticism is that dynamic
theorists often make claims about personality processes without testing them scientifically. Both
criticisms are often applied to Freud's theory, which remain in some respects one of the least
substantiated of the major personality theories. However, Freud's is also the most influential and
the most comprehensive theory of personality. It has had a major impact on psychology,
sociology, anthropology and literature-indeed, on western thought in general. Currently, its
influence is fading a little because there is so little scientific evidence for his theory.
Nevertheless, it has added such a profound perspective to the understanding of personality, that
even today it is a much used method of psychotherapy, applied by many psychologists to add a
deeper meaning to behavior. As a result, no examination of personality theories would be
complete without a careful look at his monumental contribution.
A) PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY-SIGMUND FREUD
Even though Freud's theory was one of the most criticized theories, it was also one' of the most
influential and comprehensive theories of personality. Freud stated the importance of childhood
experiences in determining adult personality and the role of anxiety and guilt in psychopathology.
But the most significant contribution was Freud's concept of the unconscious and the role it plays
in behavior. .
Levels of Consciousness: Freud viewed himself as a scientist, and he was well aware of research
on thresholds for sensory experience. Freud applied some of these ideas to the task of
understanding the human mind, and reached the startling conclusion that most of the mind lies
below the surface-below the threshold of conscious experience. Above this threshold is the realm
of the conscious. This includes our current thought: whatever we are thinking about or
experiencing at a given moment. Beneath the conscious realm is the much larger preconscious.
This contains memories that are not part of current thoughts but can readily be brought to mind if
the need arises. Similar, in fact, to the long-term memory. Finally, beneath the preconscious, and
forming the bulk of the human mind, is the, unconscious: thoughts, desires, and impulses of
which we remain largely unaware. Although some of this material has always been unconscious,
Freud believed, much of, it was once conscious but has been actively repressed--driven from
consciousness because it was too anxiety provoking. For' example, according to Freud; shameful
experiences or unacceptable sexual or aggressive urges are often driven deep within the
unconscious, The fact that we are not aware of the unconscious, however, in no way prevents it
from affecting our behavior. Indeed, Freud believed that many of the symptoms experienced by
his patients were disguised and indirect reflections of repressed thoughts and desires. This is why
one major goal of psychoanalysis-the method of treating psychological disorders devised by
Freud-is to bring repressed material back into consciousness. Presumably, once this material is
made conscious, it can be dealt with more effectively, and important causes of mental illness may
be eliminated.
Structure of Personality: Freud suggested that personality consists largely of three parts: the id,
the ego, and the Superego' As well soon see, these correspond rough1y to desire, reason, and
conscience.
The id, or desire, consists of all-our primitive, innate urges. These include various bodily
