Advanced Pathophysiology Final Exam Study Guide Questions & Answers| Grade
A| 100% Correct (Verified Solutions)Newest Update 2026
Explain how cells are connected to form tissues and organs? - (Correct Answer)-Cellular
receptors such as protein molecules on the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, or nucleus.
Proteins that bind with ligands must fit together. The plasma membrane receptors:
Determine with which ligands a cell will bind. Determine how the cell will respond to the
binding. Ligand-receptor complex initiates interactions causing adenylyl cyclase to
transform adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to messenger molecules that stimulate specific
response in the cell. This will allow cells to form tissues and organs.
Describe the different types of tissues and their functions. Epithelial, Connective, Muscle,
Neural. - (Correct Answer)-Epithelial- covers most of the internal and external body
surfaces, simple, stratified, squamous, cuboidal, columnar, pseudo stratified. The structures
are Cilia and microvilli. Functions- protection, absorption, secretion, and excretion.
Connective- serve as the ground substance, the fibers are collagenous (white), elastic
(yellow), and reticular. There are loose and dense connective tissue examples are cartilage,
bone, vascular, adipose, and organs. Functions- They are the framework for forming
organs, binding, supporting, and storing excess nutrients.
Muscle Tissue- are composed of myocytes, examples are smooth, skeletal, cardiac.
Functions- contractile tissue, enabling both voluntary and involuntary movement.
Neural Tissue- Structure: Neurons, synapses, cell body, axons, and dendrites. Functions:
Receive and transmit electrical impulses very rapidly across junctions called synapses such
as Neurotransmitters.
Mitochondria within the cells are responsible for: - (Correct Answer)-a. Cellular respiration
and energy production via metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids.
The process of catabolism involves three phases in which order? - (Correct Answer)-b.
Digestion, glycolysis, and Krebs cycle.
A patient has an annual Pap smear and gynecologic examination. Three years ago, immediately
before her third pregnancy, the pathologic report of her Pap smear indicated she had hormonal
hyperplasia. Her current Pap smear indicates she has atypical hyperplasia or dysplasia. What is
the difference between these? - (Correct Answer)-Atypical hyperplasia- is a term used when
, 2
there is an abnormal pattern of growth of cells within the ducts and/ or lobules that are not
cancerous.
Hyperplasia means that there are more cells than usual and they are no longer lined up in
just the 2 layers of cells. By looking under the microscope some of the growth looks more
abnormal.
Dysplasia- is a term used in pathology to refer to an abnormality in maturation of cells
within a tissue. This generally consists of an expansion of immature cells, with a
corresponding decrease in the number and location of mature cells.
Dysplasia is often indicative of an early neoplastic process. Example is Epithelial dysplasia
of the cervix (from an abnormal pap smear) consists of an increased population of
immature (basal-like) cells which are restricted to the mucosal surface, and have not
invaded through the basement membrane to the deeper soft tissues.
A patient has been smoking one pack of cigarettes per day for 20 years. Describe the possible
cellular changes that have occurred in his bronchial linings that can make him more prone to
upper respiratory infections - (Correct Answer)-Smoking damage is slow and progressive and
deadly. Smoking affects the normal process of how our respiratory system removes trapped
dirt and disease-causing organisms, which cilia sweep toward the mouth, where it can be
eliminated. The first inhalation starts the process of the cilia slowly losing their function
and becoming paralyzed and then disappears all together. The smoker's cough is now the
end result. The cilium no longer removes the mucus effectively and the person must cough
it up. The respiratory tract is now vulnerable for lung congestion and a place for
pathogenic organisms to start developing. The cough leads to chronic bronchitis caused by
the destroyed cilia. The bronchioles lose elasticity and are no longer able to absorb the
pressure within the alveoli enough to rupture the delicate alveolar walls; this is the classic
sign for emphysema. Progressing emphysema may be cellular changes leading to lung
cancer. First the outer border of the bronchial lining begins to divide more rapidly than
usual. Eventually, these displace the ciliated cells. The nuclei begin to look like cancer cells,
large and distorted with abnormal numbers and chromosomes. The damage at this point
can be repaired is smoking ceases. However, if it doesn't these cells may eventually break
through the basement membrane and begin dividing within the lung tissue, forming a
tumor with the potential of spreading throughout lung tissue
A patient is diagnosed with a cerebral embolus (CVA). Explain how hypoxia causes the
intracellular ion balance to change. - (Correct Answer)-The regulation of both intracellular
pH (pHi) and extracellular pH (pHo) of brain cells is critically important because many
, 3
cellular processes are sensitive to changes in pHi and/or pHo. These pH-sensitive processes
include enzymes and transporters, as well as voltage- and ligand-gated channels that can
influence neuronal activity. The pH sensitivity of glutamate-stimulated and voltage-gated
Ca2+ channels is particularly relevant to ion disturbances associated with hypoxia and
ischemia, when increases in intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) can be neurotoxic.
Ischemia/hypoxia generally leads to decreases in both pHi and pHo in brain cells, although
the pattern and magnitude of the pH changes can vary among preparations If the primary
insult were a fall in pHi( i.e., at constant pHo), then brain cells would attempt to regulate
their pHi by extruding acid, that is, transporting acid into or taking up HCO3 from the
extracellular space. The resulting secondary decrease in pHo could contribute to tissue
damage
A 95-year-old patient expresses frustration due to the constant stiffness she suffers. What are
some examples of a decrease in her tissue and systemic function as a result of the aging process?
- (Correct Answer)-Aging is the result of accumulated DNA damage, decreased
proliferative capacity of stem cells, and accumulated metabolic damage (Kumar, Abbas &
Aster, 2010). Some of the decreased tissue and systemic function is: Cardiovascular-
decreased vessel elasticity caused by calcification of connective tissue(increased pulmonary
vascular resistance), decrease number of heart muscle fibers with increased size of
individual fibers(hypertrophy). Decreased filling capacity, decreased stroke volume,
decreased sensitivity of baroreceptors, degeneration of vein valves.
Respiratory- decreased chest wall compliance resulting from calcification of costal
cartilage, decreased alveolar ventilation, decreased respiratory muscle strength, Air
trapping and decreased ventilation due to degeneration of lung tissue (decreased elasticity).
Renal/Urinary- decreased of all of the following: glomerular filtration rate due to nephron
degeneration, ability to concentrate urine, ability to regulate H+ concentration.
Gastrointestinal- decreased of all of the following: Muscular contraction, esophageal
emptying, bowel motility, production of HCL, enzymes, and intrinsic factor, hepatic
enzyme production and metabolic capacity, thinning of stomach mucosa.
Neurologic/Sensory - Nerve cells degenerate and atrophy, decreased of all of the following:
Of 25-45% of neurons, number of neurotransmitters, rate of conduction of nerve impulses,
loss of taste buds, loss of auditory hair cells and sclerosis of eardrum. Musculoskeletal-
decrease muscle mass, increased bone demineralization, Increased joint degeneration,
erosion, and calcification.
A| 100% Correct (Verified Solutions)Newest Update 2026
Explain how cells are connected to form tissues and organs? - (Correct Answer)-Cellular
receptors such as protein molecules on the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, or nucleus.
Proteins that bind with ligands must fit together. The plasma membrane receptors:
Determine with which ligands a cell will bind. Determine how the cell will respond to the
binding. Ligand-receptor complex initiates interactions causing adenylyl cyclase to
transform adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to messenger molecules that stimulate specific
response in the cell. This will allow cells to form tissues and organs.
Describe the different types of tissues and their functions. Epithelial, Connective, Muscle,
Neural. - (Correct Answer)-Epithelial- covers most of the internal and external body
surfaces, simple, stratified, squamous, cuboidal, columnar, pseudo stratified. The structures
are Cilia and microvilli. Functions- protection, absorption, secretion, and excretion.
Connective- serve as the ground substance, the fibers are collagenous (white), elastic
(yellow), and reticular. There are loose and dense connective tissue examples are cartilage,
bone, vascular, adipose, and organs. Functions- They are the framework for forming
organs, binding, supporting, and storing excess nutrients.
Muscle Tissue- are composed of myocytes, examples are smooth, skeletal, cardiac.
Functions- contractile tissue, enabling both voluntary and involuntary movement.
Neural Tissue- Structure: Neurons, synapses, cell body, axons, and dendrites. Functions:
Receive and transmit electrical impulses very rapidly across junctions called synapses such
as Neurotransmitters.
Mitochondria within the cells are responsible for: - (Correct Answer)-a. Cellular respiration
and energy production via metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids.
The process of catabolism involves three phases in which order? - (Correct Answer)-b.
Digestion, glycolysis, and Krebs cycle.
A patient has an annual Pap smear and gynecologic examination. Three years ago, immediately
before her third pregnancy, the pathologic report of her Pap smear indicated she had hormonal
hyperplasia. Her current Pap smear indicates she has atypical hyperplasia or dysplasia. What is
the difference between these? - (Correct Answer)-Atypical hyperplasia- is a term used when
, 2
there is an abnormal pattern of growth of cells within the ducts and/ or lobules that are not
cancerous.
Hyperplasia means that there are more cells than usual and they are no longer lined up in
just the 2 layers of cells. By looking under the microscope some of the growth looks more
abnormal.
Dysplasia- is a term used in pathology to refer to an abnormality in maturation of cells
within a tissue. This generally consists of an expansion of immature cells, with a
corresponding decrease in the number and location of mature cells.
Dysplasia is often indicative of an early neoplastic process. Example is Epithelial dysplasia
of the cervix (from an abnormal pap smear) consists of an increased population of
immature (basal-like) cells which are restricted to the mucosal surface, and have not
invaded through the basement membrane to the deeper soft tissues.
A patient has been smoking one pack of cigarettes per day for 20 years. Describe the possible
cellular changes that have occurred in his bronchial linings that can make him more prone to
upper respiratory infections - (Correct Answer)-Smoking damage is slow and progressive and
deadly. Smoking affects the normal process of how our respiratory system removes trapped
dirt and disease-causing organisms, which cilia sweep toward the mouth, where it can be
eliminated. The first inhalation starts the process of the cilia slowly losing their function
and becoming paralyzed and then disappears all together. The smoker's cough is now the
end result. The cilium no longer removes the mucus effectively and the person must cough
it up. The respiratory tract is now vulnerable for lung congestion and a place for
pathogenic organisms to start developing. The cough leads to chronic bronchitis caused by
the destroyed cilia. The bronchioles lose elasticity and are no longer able to absorb the
pressure within the alveoli enough to rupture the delicate alveolar walls; this is the classic
sign for emphysema. Progressing emphysema may be cellular changes leading to lung
cancer. First the outer border of the bronchial lining begins to divide more rapidly than
usual. Eventually, these displace the ciliated cells. The nuclei begin to look like cancer cells,
large and distorted with abnormal numbers and chromosomes. The damage at this point
can be repaired is smoking ceases. However, if it doesn't these cells may eventually break
through the basement membrane and begin dividing within the lung tissue, forming a
tumor with the potential of spreading throughout lung tissue
A patient is diagnosed with a cerebral embolus (CVA). Explain how hypoxia causes the
intracellular ion balance to change. - (Correct Answer)-The regulation of both intracellular
pH (pHi) and extracellular pH (pHo) of brain cells is critically important because many
, 3
cellular processes are sensitive to changes in pHi and/or pHo. These pH-sensitive processes
include enzymes and transporters, as well as voltage- and ligand-gated channels that can
influence neuronal activity. The pH sensitivity of glutamate-stimulated and voltage-gated
Ca2+ channels is particularly relevant to ion disturbances associated with hypoxia and
ischemia, when increases in intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) can be neurotoxic.
Ischemia/hypoxia generally leads to decreases in both pHi and pHo in brain cells, although
the pattern and magnitude of the pH changes can vary among preparations If the primary
insult were a fall in pHi( i.e., at constant pHo), then brain cells would attempt to regulate
their pHi by extruding acid, that is, transporting acid into or taking up HCO3 from the
extracellular space. The resulting secondary decrease in pHo could contribute to tissue
damage
A 95-year-old patient expresses frustration due to the constant stiffness she suffers. What are
some examples of a decrease in her tissue and systemic function as a result of the aging process?
- (Correct Answer)-Aging is the result of accumulated DNA damage, decreased
proliferative capacity of stem cells, and accumulated metabolic damage (Kumar, Abbas &
Aster, 2010). Some of the decreased tissue and systemic function is: Cardiovascular-
decreased vessel elasticity caused by calcification of connective tissue(increased pulmonary
vascular resistance), decrease number of heart muscle fibers with increased size of
individual fibers(hypertrophy). Decreased filling capacity, decreased stroke volume,
decreased sensitivity of baroreceptors, degeneration of vein valves.
Respiratory- decreased chest wall compliance resulting from calcification of costal
cartilage, decreased alveolar ventilation, decreased respiratory muscle strength, Air
trapping and decreased ventilation due to degeneration of lung tissue (decreased elasticity).
Renal/Urinary- decreased of all of the following: glomerular filtration rate due to nephron
degeneration, ability to concentrate urine, ability to regulate H+ concentration.
Gastrointestinal- decreased of all of the following: Muscular contraction, esophageal
emptying, bowel motility, production of HCL, enzymes, and intrinsic factor, hepatic
enzyme production and metabolic capacity, thinning of stomach mucosa.
Neurologic/Sensory - Nerve cells degenerate and atrophy, decreased of all of the following:
Of 25-45% of neurons, number of neurotransmitters, rate of conduction of nerve impulses,
loss of taste buds, loss of auditory hair cells and sclerosis of eardrum. Musculoskeletal-
decrease muscle mass, increased bone demineralization, Increased joint degeneration,
erosion, and calcification.
