THE OXFORD SERIES IN ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER
ENGINEERING
A d e l S. S e d r a , Series Editor
H EDITION
A l l e n and Holberg, CMOS Analog Circuit Design,
Bobrow, Elementary Linear Circuit Analysis, 2nd Edition
B o b r o w , Fundamentals
2nd
of Electrical Engineering,
Edition
2nd Edition
MICROELECTRONIC
B u r n s a n d R o b e r t s , An Introduction to Mixed-Signal IC Test and Measurement
C a m p b e l l , The Science and Engineering
C h e n , Digital Signal Processing
of Microelectronic Fabrication, 2nd Edition
CIRCUITS
C h e n , Linear System Theory and Design, 3rd Edition
C h e n , Signals and Systems, 3rd Edition
C o m e r , Digital Logic and State Machine Design, 3rd Edition
C o m e r , Microprocessor-based System Design
C o o p e r and M c G i l l e m , Probabilistic Methods of Signal and System Analysis, 3rd Edition
D e C a r l o a n d Lin, Linear Circuit Analysis, 2nd Edition
Dimitrijev, Understanding Semiconductor Devices
Fortney, Principles of Electronics: Analog & Digital
F r a n c o , Electric Circuits Fundamentals
G h a u s i , Electronic Devices and Circuits: Discrete and Integrated .JÈIÊIÈIÊM
G u r u a n d Hiziroglu, Electric Machinery and Transformers, 3rd Edition Adel S. Sedra 'V: :
H o u t s , Signal Analysis in Linear Systems
University of Waterloo
J o n e s , Introduction to Optical Fiber Communication Systems
Krein, Elements of Power Electronics
K u o , Digital Control Systems, 3rd Edition
Lathi, Linear Systems and Signals, 2nd Edition
Lathi, Modern Digital and Analog Communications Systems, 3rd Edition Kenneth C. Smith
Lathi, Signal Processing and Linear Systems University of Toronto
M a r t i n , Digital Integrated Circuit Design
Miner, Lines and Electromagnetic Fields for Engineers
P a r h a m i , Computer Arithmetic
R o b e r t s and Sedra, SPICE, 2nd Edition
R o u l s t o n , An Introduction to the Physics of Semiconductor Devices
Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics, 3rd Edition
Santina, S t u b b e m d , and Hostetter, Digital Control System Design, 2nd Edition
S a r m a , Introduction to Electrical Engineering
S c h a u m a n n and Van Valkenburg, Design of Analog Filters
S c h w a r z and O l d h a m , Electrical Engineering: An Introduction, 2nd Edition
Sedra a n d Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, 5th Edition
Stefani, Savant, S h a h i a n , and Hostetter, Design of Feedback Control Systems, 4th Edition
Tsividis, Operation and Modeling of the MOS Transistor, 2nd Edition
Van Valkenburg, Analog Filter Design
W a r n e r and G r u n g , Semiconductor Device Electronics
Wolovich, Automatic Control Systems New York Oxford
Yariv, Optical Electronics in Modern Communications, 5th Edition O X F O R D UNIVERSITY PRESS
Zak, Systems and Control
2004
, PREFACE xxiii
PART I D E V I C E S A N D B A S I C C I R C U I T S 2
1 Introduction to Electronics 5
Oxford University Press 2 Operational Amplifiers 63
3 Diodes 139
Oxford New York
Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires Cape Town Chennai 4 MOS Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) 235
Dar es Salaam Delhi Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kolkata 5 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) 377
Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi
São Paulo Shanghai Taipei Tokyo Toronto
ANALOG AND DIGITAL INTEGRATED
Copyright © 1982, 1987, 1991, 1998, 2004 by Oxford University Press, Inc. PART II C I R C U I T S 542
Published by Oxford University Press, Inc.
198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016
6 Single-Stage Integrated-Circuit Amplifiers 545
www.oup.com 7 Differential and Multistage Amplifiers 687
Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press 8 Feedback 791
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, 9 Operational-Amplifier and Data-Converter Circuits 871
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, 10 Digital CMOS Logic Circuits 949
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior permission of Oxford University Press.
PART III S E L E C T E D T O P I C S 1010
ISBN 0-19-514252-7 11 Memory and Advanced Digital Circuits 1013
12 Filters and Tuned Amplifiers 1083
13 Signal Generators and Waveform-Shaping Circuits 1165
Cover Illustration: The chip shown is an inside view of a mass-produced surface-micromachined gyroscope sys-
tem, integrated on a 3mm by 3mm die, and using a standard 3-m 2-V BiCMOS process suited for the harsh auto- 14 Output Stages and Power Amplifiers 1229
motive environment. This first single-chip gyroscopic sensor, in which micro-mechanical and electronic
components are intimately entwined on the same chip, provides unprecedented performance through the use of a
APPENDIXES
collection of precision-directed techniques, including emphasis on differential operation (both mechanically and
electronically) bolstered by trimmable thin-film resistive components. This tiny, robust, low-power, angular-rate- A VLSI Fabrication Technology A-1
to-voltage transducer, having a sensitivity of 12.5mV/7s and resolution of 0.0157s (or 507hour) has a myriad of
applications—including automotive skid control and rollover detection, dead reckoning for GPS backup and robot B Two-Port Network Parameters B-1
motion control, and camera-field stabilization. The complete gyroscope package, weighing 1/3 gram with a vol- C S o m e Useful Network Theorems C-1
ume of 1/6 cubic centimeter, uses 30mW from a 5-V supply. Source: John A. Geen, Steven J. Sherman, John F.
D Single-Time-Constant Circuits D-1
Chang, Stephen R. Lewis; Single-chip surface micromachined integrated Gyroscope with 50°/h Allan deviation,
IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, vol. 37, pp. 1860-1866, December 2002. (Originally presented at ISSCC E s-Domain Analysis: Poles, Zeros, and Bode Plots E-1
2002.) Photographed by John Chang, provided by John Geen, both of Analog Devices, Micromachine Products F Bibliography F-1
Division, Cambridge, MA, USA.
G Standard Resistance Values and Unit Prefixes G-1
Printing number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 H Answers to Selected Problems H-1
Printed in the United States of America
on acid-free paper INDEX IN-1
, D E T A I L E D T A B L E OF C O N T E N T S vil
2 Operational Amplifiers 63
Introduction 63
2.1 T h e Ideal O p A m p 64
2.1.1 The Op-Amp Terminals 64
2.1.2 Function and Characteristics of the Ideal
Op Amp 65
2.1.3 Differential and Common-Mode Signals 67
PREFACE xxiii
2.2 T h e Inverting Configuration 68
2.2.1 The Closed-Loop Gain 69
PARTI DEVICES AND BASIC CIRCUITS 2 2.2.2 Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain 71
2.2.3 Input arid Output Resistances 72
1 Introduction to Electronics 5 2.2.4 An Important Application—The Weighted Summer 75
2.3 T h e N o n i n v e r t i n g Configuration 77
Introduction 5 2.3.1 The Closed-Loop Gain 77
2.3.2 Characteristics of the Noninverting
1.1 Signals 6
Configuration 78
1.2 F r e q u e n c y S p e c t r u m of Signals 7 2.3.3 Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain 78
1.3 A n a l o g and Digital Signals 10 2.3.4 The Voltage Follower 79
1.4 Amplifiers 13 2.4 Difference Amplifiers 81
1.4.1 Signal Amplification 13 2.4.1 A Single Op-Amp Difference Amplifier 82
1.4.2 Amplifier Circuit Symbol W 2.4.2 A Superior Circuit—The Instrumentation Amplifier 85
1.4.3 Voltage Gain 14 2.5 Effect of Finite O p e n - L o o p G a i n and B a n d w i d t h o n
1.4.4 Power Gain and Current Gain 15 Circuit P e r f o r m a n c e 89
1.4.5 Expressing Gain in Decibels 15 2.5.1 Frequency Dependence of the Open-Loop Gain 89
1.4.6 The Amplifier Power Supplies 16 2.5.2 Frequency Response of Closed-Loop Amplifiers 91
1.4.7 Amplifier Saturation 18 2.6 L a r g e - S i g n a l O p e r a t i o n of O p A m p s 94
1.4.8 Nonlinear Transfer Characteristics and Biasing 19 2.6.1 Output Voltage Saturation 94
1.4.9 Symbol Convention 2 2 2.6.2 Output Current Limits 94
1.5 Circuit M o d e l s for Amplifiers 23 2.6.3 Slew Rate 95
1.5.1 Voltage Amplifiers 23 2.6.4 Full-Power Bandwidth 97
1.5.2 Cascaded Amplifiers 25 2.7 D C Imperfections 98
1.5.3 Other Amplifier Types 2 7 2.7.1 Offset Voltage 98
1.5.4 Relationships Between the Four Amplifier Models 27 2.7.2 Input Bias and Offset Currents 102
1.6 F r e q u e n c y R e s p o n s e of Amplifiers 31 2.8 Integrators and Differentiators 105
1.6.1 Measuring the Amplifier Frequency Response 31 2.8.1 The Inverting Configuration with General Impedances 105
1.6.2 Amplifier Bandwidth 32 2.8.2 The Inverting Integrator 107
1.6.3 Evaluating the Frequency Response of Amplifiers 33 2.8.3 The Op-Amp Differentiator 112
1.6.4 Single-Time-Constant Networks 33
2.9 T h e S P I C E O p - A m p M o d e l and S i m u l a t i o n E x a m p l e s 114
1.6.5 Classification of Amplifiers Based on Frequency Response 38
2.9.1 Linear Macromodel 115
1.7 Digital L o g i c Inverters 40
2.9.2 Nonlinear Macromodel 119
1.7.1 Function of the Inverter 40
Summary 122
1.7.2 The Voltage Transfer Characteristic (VTC) 41
1.7.3 Noise Margins 42 Problems 123
1.7.4 The Ideal VTC 43
1.7.5 Inverter Implementation 43 3 Diodes 139
1.7.6 Power Dissipation 45
1.7.7 Propagation Delay 46 Introduction 139
1.8 Circuit S i m u l a t i o n U s i n g S P I C E 49 3.1 T h e Ideal D i o d e 140
Summary 50 3.1.1 Current-Voltage Characteristic 140
Problems 51 3.1.2 A Simple Application: The Rectifier 141
3.1.3 Another Application: Diode Logic Gates 144
, Viii ! D E T A I L E D TABLE OF C O N T E N T S
DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.2 T e r m i n a l Characteristics of J u n c t i o n D i o d e s 147
3.2.1 The Forward-Bias Region 148 4 MOS Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) 235
3.2.2 The Reverse-Bias Region 152
Introduction 235
3.2.3 The Breakdown Region 152
3.3 M o d e l i n g t h e D i o d e F o r w a r d Characteristic 153 4.1 D e v i c e Structure a n d Physical O p e r a t i o n 236
3.3.1 The Exponential Model 153 4.1.1 Device Structure 236
3.3.2 Graphical Analysis Using the Exponential Model 154 4.1.2 Operation with No Gate Voltage 238
3.3.3 Iterative Analysis Using the Exponential Model 154 4.1.3 Creating a Channel for Current Flow 238
3.3.4 The Need for Rapid Analysis 155 4.1.4 Applying a Small v DS 239
3.3.5 The Piecewise-Linear Model 755 4.1.5 Operation as v Is Increased 2 4 1
DS
3.3.6 The Constant-Voltage-Drop Model 157 4.1.6 Derivation of the i -v
D Relationship
DS 243
3.3.7 The Ideal-Diode Model 158 4.1.7 The p-Channel MOSFET 247
3.3.8 The Small-Signal Model 159 4.1.8 Complementary MOS or CMOS 247
3.3.9 Use of the Diode Forward Drop in 4.1.9 Operating the MOS Transistor in the Subthreshold Region 248
Voltage Regulation 163 4.2 C u r r e n t - V o l t a g e Characteristics 248
3.3.10 Summary 165 4.2.1 Circuit Symbol 248
3.4 Operation in t h e R e v e r s e B r e a k d o w n R e g i o n — 4.2.2 The i -v
D DS Characteristics 249
Zener Diodes 167 4.2.3 Finite Output Resistance in Saturation 253
3.4.1 Specifying and Modeling the Zener Diode 167 4.2.4 Characteristics of the p-Channel MOSFET 256
3.4.2 Use of the Zener as a Shunt Regulator 168 4.2.5 The Role of the Substrate—The Body Effect 258
3.4.3 Temperature Effects 170 4.2.6 Temperature Effects 259
3.4.4 A Final Remark 171 4.2.7 Breakdown and Input Protection 259
3.5 Rectifier Circuits 171 4.2.8 Summary 260
3.5.1 The Half-Wave Rectifier 172 4.3 M O S F E T Circuits at D C 262
3.5.2 The Full-Wave Rectifier 174 4.4 T h e M O S F E T as an Amplifier a n d as a S w i t c h 270
3.5.3 The Bridge Rectifier 176 4.4.1 Large-Signal Operation—The Transfer Characteristic 2 7 1
3.5.4 The Rectifier with a Filter Capacitor— 4.4.2 Graphical Derivation of the Transfer Characteristic 273
The Peak Rectifier 177
4.4.3 Operation as a Switch 274
3.5.5 Precision Half-Wave Rectifier—
4.4.4 Operation as a Linear Amplifier 274
The Super Diode 183
4.4.5 Analytical Expressions for the Transfer Characteristic 2 7 5
3.6 L i m i t i n g a n d C l a m p i n g Circuits 184
4.4.6 A Final Remark on Biasing 280
3.6.1 Limiter Circuits 184
4.5 B i a s i n g in M O S Amplifier Circuits 280
3.6.2 The Clamped Capacitor or DC Restorer 187
4.5.1 Biasing by Fixing V GS 280
3.6.3 The Voltage Doubler 189
4.5.2 Biasing by Fixing V and Connecting a Resistance
G
3.7 Physical Operation of D i o d e s 190 in the Source 281
3.7.1 Basic Semiconductor Concepts 190 4.5.3 Biasing. Using a Drain-to-Gate Feedback Resistor 284
3.7.2 Thepn Junction Under Open-Circuit Conditions 196 4.5.4 Biasing Using a Constant-Current Source 285
3.7.3 The pn Junction Under Reverse-Bias Conditions 199 4.5.5 A Final Remark 287
3.7.4 T h e J u n c t i o n in the Breakdown Region 203
4.6 Small-Signal Operation and Models 287
3.7.5 The pn Junction Under Forward-Bias
4.6.1 The DC Bias Point 287
Conditions 204
4.6.2 The Signal Current in the Drain Terminal 288
3.7.6 Summary 208
4.6.3 The Voltage Gain 289
3.8 Special D i o d e T y p e s 209
4.6.4 Separating the DC Analysis and the Signal Analysis 290
3.8.1 The Schottky-Barrier Diode (SBD) 210
4.6.5 Small-Signal Equivalent-Circuit Models 290
3.8.2 Varactors 210
4.6.6 The Transconductance g 292 m
3.8.3 Photodiodes 210
4.6.7 The T Equivalent-Circuit Model 2 9 5
3.8.4 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) 211
4.6.8 Modeling the Body Effect 296
3.9 The SPICE Diode Model and Simulation Examples 212 4.6.9 Summary 297
3.9.1 The Diode Model 212
4.7 S i n g l e - S t a g e M O S Amplifiers 299
3.9.2 The Zener Diode Model 213 4.1.1 The Basic Structure 299
Summary 217 4.7.2 Characterizing Amplifiers 301
Problems 218 4.7.3 The Common-Source (CS) Amplifier 306
4.7.4 The Common-Source Amplifier with a Source Resistance 309
ENGINEERING
A d e l S. S e d r a , Series Editor
H EDITION
A l l e n and Holberg, CMOS Analog Circuit Design,
Bobrow, Elementary Linear Circuit Analysis, 2nd Edition
B o b r o w , Fundamentals
2nd
of Electrical Engineering,
Edition
2nd Edition
MICROELECTRONIC
B u r n s a n d R o b e r t s , An Introduction to Mixed-Signal IC Test and Measurement
C a m p b e l l , The Science and Engineering
C h e n , Digital Signal Processing
of Microelectronic Fabrication, 2nd Edition
CIRCUITS
C h e n , Linear System Theory and Design, 3rd Edition
C h e n , Signals and Systems, 3rd Edition
C o m e r , Digital Logic and State Machine Design, 3rd Edition
C o m e r , Microprocessor-based System Design
C o o p e r and M c G i l l e m , Probabilistic Methods of Signal and System Analysis, 3rd Edition
D e C a r l o a n d Lin, Linear Circuit Analysis, 2nd Edition
Dimitrijev, Understanding Semiconductor Devices
Fortney, Principles of Electronics: Analog & Digital
F r a n c o , Electric Circuits Fundamentals
G h a u s i , Electronic Devices and Circuits: Discrete and Integrated .JÈIÊIÈIÊM
G u r u a n d Hiziroglu, Electric Machinery and Transformers, 3rd Edition Adel S. Sedra 'V: :
H o u t s , Signal Analysis in Linear Systems
University of Waterloo
J o n e s , Introduction to Optical Fiber Communication Systems
Krein, Elements of Power Electronics
K u o , Digital Control Systems, 3rd Edition
Lathi, Linear Systems and Signals, 2nd Edition
Lathi, Modern Digital and Analog Communications Systems, 3rd Edition Kenneth C. Smith
Lathi, Signal Processing and Linear Systems University of Toronto
M a r t i n , Digital Integrated Circuit Design
Miner, Lines and Electromagnetic Fields for Engineers
P a r h a m i , Computer Arithmetic
R o b e r t s and Sedra, SPICE, 2nd Edition
R o u l s t o n , An Introduction to the Physics of Semiconductor Devices
Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics, 3rd Edition
Santina, S t u b b e m d , and Hostetter, Digital Control System Design, 2nd Edition
S a r m a , Introduction to Electrical Engineering
S c h a u m a n n and Van Valkenburg, Design of Analog Filters
S c h w a r z and O l d h a m , Electrical Engineering: An Introduction, 2nd Edition
Sedra a n d Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, 5th Edition
Stefani, Savant, S h a h i a n , and Hostetter, Design of Feedback Control Systems, 4th Edition
Tsividis, Operation and Modeling of the MOS Transistor, 2nd Edition
Van Valkenburg, Analog Filter Design
W a r n e r and G r u n g , Semiconductor Device Electronics
Wolovich, Automatic Control Systems New York Oxford
Yariv, Optical Electronics in Modern Communications, 5th Edition O X F O R D UNIVERSITY PRESS
Zak, Systems and Control
2004
, PREFACE xxiii
PART I D E V I C E S A N D B A S I C C I R C U I T S 2
1 Introduction to Electronics 5
Oxford University Press 2 Operational Amplifiers 63
3 Diodes 139
Oxford New York
Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires Cape Town Chennai 4 MOS Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) 235
Dar es Salaam Delhi Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kolkata 5 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) 377
Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi
São Paulo Shanghai Taipei Tokyo Toronto
ANALOG AND DIGITAL INTEGRATED
Copyright © 1982, 1987, 1991, 1998, 2004 by Oxford University Press, Inc. PART II C I R C U I T S 542
Published by Oxford University Press, Inc.
198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016
6 Single-Stage Integrated-Circuit Amplifiers 545
www.oup.com 7 Differential and Multistage Amplifiers 687
Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press 8 Feedback 791
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, 9 Operational-Amplifier and Data-Converter Circuits 871
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, 10 Digital CMOS Logic Circuits 949
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior permission of Oxford University Press.
PART III S E L E C T E D T O P I C S 1010
ISBN 0-19-514252-7 11 Memory and Advanced Digital Circuits 1013
12 Filters and Tuned Amplifiers 1083
13 Signal Generators and Waveform-Shaping Circuits 1165
Cover Illustration: The chip shown is an inside view of a mass-produced surface-micromachined gyroscope sys-
tem, integrated on a 3mm by 3mm die, and using a standard 3-m 2-V BiCMOS process suited for the harsh auto- 14 Output Stages and Power Amplifiers 1229
motive environment. This first single-chip gyroscopic sensor, in which micro-mechanical and electronic
components are intimately entwined on the same chip, provides unprecedented performance through the use of a
APPENDIXES
collection of precision-directed techniques, including emphasis on differential operation (both mechanically and
electronically) bolstered by trimmable thin-film resistive components. This tiny, robust, low-power, angular-rate- A VLSI Fabrication Technology A-1
to-voltage transducer, having a sensitivity of 12.5mV/7s and resolution of 0.0157s (or 507hour) has a myriad of
applications—including automotive skid control and rollover detection, dead reckoning for GPS backup and robot B Two-Port Network Parameters B-1
motion control, and camera-field stabilization. The complete gyroscope package, weighing 1/3 gram with a vol- C S o m e Useful Network Theorems C-1
ume of 1/6 cubic centimeter, uses 30mW from a 5-V supply. Source: John A. Geen, Steven J. Sherman, John F.
D Single-Time-Constant Circuits D-1
Chang, Stephen R. Lewis; Single-chip surface micromachined integrated Gyroscope with 50°/h Allan deviation,
IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, vol. 37, pp. 1860-1866, December 2002. (Originally presented at ISSCC E s-Domain Analysis: Poles, Zeros, and Bode Plots E-1
2002.) Photographed by John Chang, provided by John Geen, both of Analog Devices, Micromachine Products F Bibliography F-1
Division, Cambridge, MA, USA.
G Standard Resistance Values and Unit Prefixes G-1
Printing number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 H Answers to Selected Problems H-1
Printed in the United States of America
on acid-free paper INDEX IN-1
, D E T A I L E D T A B L E OF C O N T E N T S vil
2 Operational Amplifiers 63
Introduction 63
2.1 T h e Ideal O p A m p 64
2.1.1 The Op-Amp Terminals 64
2.1.2 Function and Characteristics of the Ideal
Op Amp 65
2.1.3 Differential and Common-Mode Signals 67
PREFACE xxiii
2.2 T h e Inverting Configuration 68
2.2.1 The Closed-Loop Gain 69
PARTI DEVICES AND BASIC CIRCUITS 2 2.2.2 Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain 71
2.2.3 Input arid Output Resistances 72
1 Introduction to Electronics 5 2.2.4 An Important Application—The Weighted Summer 75
2.3 T h e N o n i n v e r t i n g Configuration 77
Introduction 5 2.3.1 The Closed-Loop Gain 77
2.3.2 Characteristics of the Noninverting
1.1 Signals 6
Configuration 78
1.2 F r e q u e n c y S p e c t r u m of Signals 7 2.3.3 Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain 78
1.3 A n a l o g and Digital Signals 10 2.3.4 The Voltage Follower 79
1.4 Amplifiers 13 2.4 Difference Amplifiers 81
1.4.1 Signal Amplification 13 2.4.1 A Single Op-Amp Difference Amplifier 82
1.4.2 Amplifier Circuit Symbol W 2.4.2 A Superior Circuit—The Instrumentation Amplifier 85
1.4.3 Voltage Gain 14 2.5 Effect of Finite O p e n - L o o p G a i n and B a n d w i d t h o n
1.4.4 Power Gain and Current Gain 15 Circuit P e r f o r m a n c e 89
1.4.5 Expressing Gain in Decibels 15 2.5.1 Frequency Dependence of the Open-Loop Gain 89
1.4.6 The Amplifier Power Supplies 16 2.5.2 Frequency Response of Closed-Loop Amplifiers 91
1.4.7 Amplifier Saturation 18 2.6 L a r g e - S i g n a l O p e r a t i o n of O p A m p s 94
1.4.8 Nonlinear Transfer Characteristics and Biasing 19 2.6.1 Output Voltage Saturation 94
1.4.9 Symbol Convention 2 2 2.6.2 Output Current Limits 94
1.5 Circuit M o d e l s for Amplifiers 23 2.6.3 Slew Rate 95
1.5.1 Voltage Amplifiers 23 2.6.4 Full-Power Bandwidth 97
1.5.2 Cascaded Amplifiers 25 2.7 D C Imperfections 98
1.5.3 Other Amplifier Types 2 7 2.7.1 Offset Voltage 98
1.5.4 Relationships Between the Four Amplifier Models 27 2.7.2 Input Bias and Offset Currents 102
1.6 F r e q u e n c y R e s p o n s e of Amplifiers 31 2.8 Integrators and Differentiators 105
1.6.1 Measuring the Amplifier Frequency Response 31 2.8.1 The Inverting Configuration with General Impedances 105
1.6.2 Amplifier Bandwidth 32 2.8.2 The Inverting Integrator 107
1.6.3 Evaluating the Frequency Response of Amplifiers 33 2.8.3 The Op-Amp Differentiator 112
1.6.4 Single-Time-Constant Networks 33
2.9 T h e S P I C E O p - A m p M o d e l and S i m u l a t i o n E x a m p l e s 114
1.6.5 Classification of Amplifiers Based on Frequency Response 38
2.9.1 Linear Macromodel 115
1.7 Digital L o g i c Inverters 40
2.9.2 Nonlinear Macromodel 119
1.7.1 Function of the Inverter 40
Summary 122
1.7.2 The Voltage Transfer Characteristic (VTC) 41
1.7.3 Noise Margins 42 Problems 123
1.7.4 The Ideal VTC 43
1.7.5 Inverter Implementation 43 3 Diodes 139
1.7.6 Power Dissipation 45
1.7.7 Propagation Delay 46 Introduction 139
1.8 Circuit S i m u l a t i o n U s i n g S P I C E 49 3.1 T h e Ideal D i o d e 140
Summary 50 3.1.1 Current-Voltage Characteristic 140
Problems 51 3.1.2 A Simple Application: The Rectifier 141
3.1.3 Another Application: Diode Logic Gates 144
, Viii ! D E T A I L E D TABLE OF C O N T E N T S
DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.2 T e r m i n a l Characteristics of J u n c t i o n D i o d e s 147
3.2.1 The Forward-Bias Region 148 4 MOS Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) 235
3.2.2 The Reverse-Bias Region 152
Introduction 235
3.2.3 The Breakdown Region 152
3.3 M o d e l i n g t h e D i o d e F o r w a r d Characteristic 153 4.1 D e v i c e Structure a n d Physical O p e r a t i o n 236
3.3.1 The Exponential Model 153 4.1.1 Device Structure 236
3.3.2 Graphical Analysis Using the Exponential Model 154 4.1.2 Operation with No Gate Voltage 238
3.3.3 Iterative Analysis Using the Exponential Model 154 4.1.3 Creating a Channel for Current Flow 238
3.3.4 The Need for Rapid Analysis 155 4.1.4 Applying a Small v DS 239
3.3.5 The Piecewise-Linear Model 755 4.1.5 Operation as v Is Increased 2 4 1
DS
3.3.6 The Constant-Voltage-Drop Model 157 4.1.6 Derivation of the i -v
D Relationship
DS 243
3.3.7 The Ideal-Diode Model 158 4.1.7 The p-Channel MOSFET 247
3.3.8 The Small-Signal Model 159 4.1.8 Complementary MOS or CMOS 247
3.3.9 Use of the Diode Forward Drop in 4.1.9 Operating the MOS Transistor in the Subthreshold Region 248
Voltage Regulation 163 4.2 C u r r e n t - V o l t a g e Characteristics 248
3.3.10 Summary 165 4.2.1 Circuit Symbol 248
3.4 Operation in t h e R e v e r s e B r e a k d o w n R e g i o n — 4.2.2 The i -v
D DS Characteristics 249
Zener Diodes 167 4.2.3 Finite Output Resistance in Saturation 253
3.4.1 Specifying and Modeling the Zener Diode 167 4.2.4 Characteristics of the p-Channel MOSFET 256
3.4.2 Use of the Zener as a Shunt Regulator 168 4.2.5 The Role of the Substrate—The Body Effect 258
3.4.3 Temperature Effects 170 4.2.6 Temperature Effects 259
3.4.4 A Final Remark 171 4.2.7 Breakdown and Input Protection 259
3.5 Rectifier Circuits 171 4.2.8 Summary 260
3.5.1 The Half-Wave Rectifier 172 4.3 M O S F E T Circuits at D C 262
3.5.2 The Full-Wave Rectifier 174 4.4 T h e M O S F E T as an Amplifier a n d as a S w i t c h 270
3.5.3 The Bridge Rectifier 176 4.4.1 Large-Signal Operation—The Transfer Characteristic 2 7 1
3.5.4 The Rectifier with a Filter Capacitor— 4.4.2 Graphical Derivation of the Transfer Characteristic 273
The Peak Rectifier 177
4.4.3 Operation as a Switch 274
3.5.5 Precision Half-Wave Rectifier—
4.4.4 Operation as a Linear Amplifier 274
The Super Diode 183
4.4.5 Analytical Expressions for the Transfer Characteristic 2 7 5
3.6 L i m i t i n g a n d C l a m p i n g Circuits 184
4.4.6 A Final Remark on Biasing 280
3.6.1 Limiter Circuits 184
4.5 B i a s i n g in M O S Amplifier Circuits 280
3.6.2 The Clamped Capacitor or DC Restorer 187
4.5.1 Biasing by Fixing V GS 280
3.6.3 The Voltage Doubler 189
4.5.2 Biasing by Fixing V and Connecting a Resistance
G
3.7 Physical Operation of D i o d e s 190 in the Source 281
3.7.1 Basic Semiconductor Concepts 190 4.5.3 Biasing. Using a Drain-to-Gate Feedback Resistor 284
3.7.2 Thepn Junction Under Open-Circuit Conditions 196 4.5.4 Biasing Using a Constant-Current Source 285
3.7.3 The pn Junction Under Reverse-Bias Conditions 199 4.5.5 A Final Remark 287
3.7.4 T h e J u n c t i o n in the Breakdown Region 203
4.6 Small-Signal Operation and Models 287
3.7.5 The pn Junction Under Forward-Bias
4.6.1 The DC Bias Point 287
Conditions 204
4.6.2 The Signal Current in the Drain Terminal 288
3.7.6 Summary 208
4.6.3 The Voltage Gain 289
3.8 Special D i o d e T y p e s 209
4.6.4 Separating the DC Analysis and the Signal Analysis 290
3.8.1 The Schottky-Barrier Diode (SBD) 210
4.6.5 Small-Signal Equivalent-Circuit Models 290
3.8.2 Varactors 210
4.6.6 The Transconductance g 292 m
3.8.3 Photodiodes 210
4.6.7 The T Equivalent-Circuit Model 2 9 5
3.8.4 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) 211
4.6.8 Modeling the Body Effect 296
3.9 The SPICE Diode Model and Simulation Examples 212 4.6.9 Summary 297
3.9.1 The Diode Model 212
4.7 S i n g l e - S t a g e M O S Amplifiers 299
3.9.2 The Zener Diode Model 213 4.1.1 The Basic Structure 299
Summary 217 4.7.2 Characterizing Amplifiers 301
Problems 218 4.7.3 The Common-Source (CS) Amplifier 306
4.7.4 The Common-Source Amplifier with a Source Resistance 309
