Lecture 8: Stress
What Is Stress:
● Stress involves any circumstances that threaten or are perceived to threaten one's well being and
thereby taxing ones coping abilities
● Psychologists have viewed stress in 3 different ways:
○ A Stimulus
■ Events that place a strong demand on us, these situations are referred to as
stressors
■ (ex: “there are all kinds of stress in my life right now. I have 3 exams next week,
i lost my backpack and my care just broke down”)
○ A Response:
■ Stress can be viewed as a response that has cognitive, physiological and
behavioral components
■ A person might say “I am feeling stressed out. I am tensed up, I cannot
concentrate because I am worried and I've been flying off the handle all week”
■ Presence of negative emotions is an important feature of the stress response. It
links the study of stress with the field of emotions
○ An organism-environment interaction
■ Stress can be viewed as a transaction between an organism and the environment
■ Stress is a pattern of cognitive appraisals, physiological responses and behavioral
tendencies that occur in response to a perceived imbalance between situational
demands and resources needed to cope with them
The Nature Of Stress:
● Stress is a common, everyday event
○ We often think of stress in terms of major stressors such as tornadoes, car accidents,
military combat etc.
○ Stress can come in any shape size or form and is an everyday event
○ Minor stressors such as exams or paying bills can also have effects
○ Routine hassles have been found to be more strongly related to mental and physical
health than major stressors
○ Major and minor stressors are not entirely independent. A major stressful event, such as
going through a divorce, can trigger a cascade of minor stressors, such as looking for an
attorney, taking on new household responsibilities, and so forth.
○ Many theorists believe that stressful events can have a cumulative or additive impact.
Evidence suggests that chronic, enduring stress and multiple stressful events can add up
● Stress is subjective
○ Not everyone feels the same degree of stress from the same event
○ The difference may depend on how we appraise events
○ We first make a primary appraisal or initial evaluation of the relevance, level of threat
and degree of stress the event brings
, ○ If viewed as stressful, we then make a secondary appraisal, or an evaluation of our ability
to cope and your options for dealing with stress
● Stress may be embedded in the environment:
○ Ambient stress refers to chronic negative conditions embedded in the environment
○ Variety of types of environmental stress: excessive noise, traffic, pollution, crowding,
poverty, etc.
○ Certain types (ex: poverty) have been associated with elevated stress hormones
● Stress is influenced by culture:
○ Culture is made up of a groups widely shared costumes, beliefs and values that are
transmitted socially across generations
○ Culture sets the context in which people experience and appraise stress
○ Disparities in the stressors experienced by specific cultural groups
○ Racial discrimination negatively affects the mental health and wellbeing for targets of
racism
○ For many immigrants, acculturation or changing to adapt to new culture is a major
source of stress related to reduced wellbeing
○ Entering a new culture, with unfamiliar customs and expectations, can cause tension and
anxiety.
○ Individuals who knew how to fit it perfectly in their home culture, now must learn even
the most basic social norms. Indeed, acculturative stress is associated with depression and
anxiety and other negative mental health outcomes
○ Although acculturation doesn’t inherently lead to negative outcomes, the risks are higher
if the individual experiences discrimination and marginalization associated with anti-
immigration sentiments
Major Sources Of Stress
● Acute stressors - threatening events that have a relatively short duration and a clear end point
● Chronic stressors - threatening events that have a relatively long duration and no readily apparent
time limit
● Anticipatory stressors - upcoming or future events that are perceived to be threatening (can affect
us psychologically and physically)
, ● Frustration - occurs in any situation in which the pursuit of some goal is thwarted (you want
something but you can't have it)
● Internal conflict - occurs when two or more incompatible motivations or behavioral impulses
compete for expression. Comes in three types:
○ Approach-approach - must make a choice between two attractive goals (ex: pizza or
pasta)
○ Avoidance-avoidance - must make a choice between two unattractive goals (ex: painful
backache or surgery)
○ Approach-avoidance - must choose whether or not to pursue one goal, which has both
pros and cons (ex: date with an attractive person or rejection)
● Life changes - any noticeable alterations in ones living circumstances that require readjustment
(ex: marriage, divorce, death, injury or illness, etc.)
○ Both positive and negative life changes can be stressful
○ Holmes and Rahe developed the social readjustment rating scale (SRRS) to measure life
change as a form of stress
○ Rating task from not at all stressful to extremely stressful
● Pressure - involves expectations or demands that one behave in a certain way (often self
imposed). There are two types of pressure
○ The pressure to perform by executing tasks and responsibilities quickly, efficiently and
successfully
○ Pressure to conform to expectations
Cortisol:
● Cortisol is the stress hormone
● It increases blood sugar/blood pressure, suppresses the immune system, decreases serotonin and
sensitivity to pain and heightens memory and attention
Responding To Stress:
● Type A and Type B are two types of trait classifications
● Type A are individuals who are aggressive, ambitious, controlling, highly competitive,
preoccupied with status, workaholics, hostile and lack patience
● Type B are people who are relaxed, less stressed, flexible, emotional and expressive and have a
laid back attitude
● Human response to stress is complex and multidimensional
● Stress responses occur at three levels
○ Emotional responses
■ Emotions are powerful, largely uncontrollable feelings, accompanied by
physiological changes
■ Common negative emotional responses to stress include annoyance, anger, rage,
apprehension, anxiety, fear, dejection, sadness and grief
■ Negative emotions are expected in response to stressful events
■ May be one's ability to talk about them that makes the difference in experiencing
severe reactions to stress
■ Stress can also promote positive emotional responses such as gratitude and
renewed love for friends and family
, ■ Positive emotions contribute to building social, intellectual and physical
resources that can be helpful in dealing with stress
■ Strong emotions may hamper or enhance our ability to cope with stress,
depending on our level of arousal and the task complexity
■ The inverted U-hypothesis predicts that:
● For low complexity tasks, a high level of arousal is best
● For medium complexity tasks, a medium level of arousal is best
● For high complexity tasks, a low level of
arousal is best
○ Physiological responses
■ Endocrine system consists of glands that secrete
chemicals called hormones into the bloodstream
■ Two brain-body pathways control our physiological
responses to stress via signals to the endocrine
system (consists of glands that secrete chemicals into
the bloodstream)
● Both pathways are activated by
hypothalamus
● The first pathway is routed through the ANS,
it stimulates the adrenal medulla in the central
part of the adrenal glands to release
catecholamines into the bloodstream. These
hormones trigger several physiological
changes that prepare the body for action. This
includes an increase in heart rate and blood
flow to the brain and muscles, faster
respiration and oxygen consumption for heightened alertness, and the
inhibition of digestive processes to conserve energy. Additionally, the
pupils dilate, enhancing visual sensitivity.
● The second pathway describes a more direct interaction between the
brain and the endocrine system. The hypothalamus communicates with
the pituitary gland, often referred to as the master gland. The pituitary
releases ACTH, which prompts the adrenal cortex to secrete
corticosteroids. These hormones are crucial in stress response, enhancing
energy availability and reducing tissue inflammation upon injury.
Cortisol, a key corticosteroid, is commonly measured in studies to assess
human stress levels.
■ Stress can suppress certain aspects of the immune response
■ Stress can interfere with neurogenesis, the formation of new neurons in the brain
■ Hans Selye's general adaptation syndrome is a model of the body's stress
response consisting of three stages
● Alarm reaction - initial response to threat, fight or flight response
engages
What Is Stress:
● Stress involves any circumstances that threaten or are perceived to threaten one's well being and
thereby taxing ones coping abilities
● Psychologists have viewed stress in 3 different ways:
○ A Stimulus
■ Events that place a strong demand on us, these situations are referred to as
stressors
■ (ex: “there are all kinds of stress in my life right now. I have 3 exams next week,
i lost my backpack and my care just broke down”)
○ A Response:
■ Stress can be viewed as a response that has cognitive, physiological and
behavioral components
■ A person might say “I am feeling stressed out. I am tensed up, I cannot
concentrate because I am worried and I've been flying off the handle all week”
■ Presence of negative emotions is an important feature of the stress response. It
links the study of stress with the field of emotions
○ An organism-environment interaction
■ Stress can be viewed as a transaction between an organism and the environment
■ Stress is a pattern of cognitive appraisals, physiological responses and behavioral
tendencies that occur in response to a perceived imbalance between situational
demands and resources needed to cope with them
The Nature Of Stress:
● Stress is a common, everyday event
○ We often think of stress in terms of major stressors such as tornadoes, car accidents,
military combat etc.
○ Stress can come in any shape size or form and is an everyday event
○ Minor stressors such as exams or paying bills can also have effects
○ Routine hassles have been found to be more strongly related to mental and physical
health than major stressors
○ Major and minor stressors are not entirely independent. A major stressful event, such as
going through a divorce, can trigger a cascade of minor stressors, such as looking for an
attorney, taking on new household responsibilities, and so forth.
○ Many theorists believe that stressful events can have a cumulative or additive impact.
Evidence suggests that chronic, enduring stress and multiple stressful events can add up
● Stress is subjective
○ Not everyone feels the same degree of stress from the same event
○ The difference may depend on how we appraise events
○ We first make a primary appraisal or initial evaluation of the relevance, level of threat
and degree of stress the event brings
, ○ If viewed as stressful, we then make a secondary appraisal, or an evaluation of our ability
to cope and your options for dealing with stress
● Stress may be embedded in the environment:
○ Ambient stress refers to chronic negative conditions embedded in the environment
○ Variety of types of environmental stress: excessive noise, traffic, pollution, crowding,
poverty, etc.
○ Certain types (ex: poverty) have been associated with elevated stress hormones
● Stress is influenced by culture:
○ Culture is made up of a groups widely shared costumes, beliefs and values that are
transmitted socially across generations
○ Culture sets the context in which people experience and appraise stress
○ Disparities in the stressors experienced by specific cultural groups
○ Racial discrimination negatively affects the mental health and wellbeing for targets of
racism
○ For many immigrants, acculturation or changing to adapt to new culture is a major
source of stress related to reduced wellbeing
○ Entering a new culture, with unfamiliar customs and expectations, can cause tension and
anxiety.
○ Individuals who knew how to fit it perfectly in their home culture, now must learn even
the most basic social norms. Indeed, acculturative stress is associated with depression and
anxiety and other negative mental health outcomes
○ Although acculturation doesn’t inherently lead to negative outcomes, the risks are higher
if the individual experiences discrimination and marginalization associated with anti-
immigration sentiments
Major Sources Of Stress
● Acute stressors - threatening events that have a relatively short duration and a clear end point
● Chronic stressors - threatening events that have a relatively long duration and no readily apparent
time limit
● Anticipatory stressors - upcoming or future events that are perceived to be threatening (can affect
us psychologically and physically)
, ● Frustration - occurs in any situation in which the pursuit of some goal is thwarted (you want
something but you can't have it)
● Internal conflict - occurs when two or more incompatible motivations or behavioral impulses
compete for expression. Comes in three types:
○ Approach-approach - must make a choice between two attractive goals (ex: pizza or
pasta)
○ Avoidance-avoidance - must make a choice between two unattractive goals (ex: painful
backache or surgery)
○ Approach-avoidance - must choose whether or not to pursue one goal, which has both
pros and cons (ex: date with an attractive person or rejection)
● Life changes - any noticeable alterations in ones living circumstances that require readjustment
(ex: marriage, divorce, death, injury or illness, etc.)
○ Both positive and negative life changes can be stressful
○ Holmes and Rahe developed the social readjustment rating scale (SRRS) to measure life
change as a form of stress
○ Rating task from not at all stressful to extremely stressful
● Pressure - involves expectations or demands that one behave in a certain way (often self
imposed). There are two types of pressure
○ The pressure to perform by executing tasks and responsibilities quickly, efficiently and
successfully
○ Pressure to conform to expectations
Cortisol:
● Cortisol is the stress hormone
● It increases blood sugar/blood pressure, suppresses the immune system, decreases serotonin and
sensitivity to pain and heightens memory and attention
Responding To Stress:
● Type A and Type B are two types of trait classifications
● Type A are individuals who are aggressive, ambitious, controlling, highly competitive,
preoccupied with status, workaholics, hostile and lack patience
● Type B are people who are relaxed, less stressed, flexible, emotional and expressive and have a
laid back attitude
● Human response to stress is complex and multidimensional
● Stress responses occur at three levels
○ Emotional responses
■ Emotions are powerful, largely uncontrollable feelings, accompanied by
physiological changes
■ Common negative emotional responses to stress include annoyance, anger, rage,
apprehension, anxiety, fear, dejection, sadness and grief
■ Negative emotions are expected in response to stressful events
■ May be one's ability to talk about them that makes the difference in experiencing
severe reactions to stress
■ Stress can also promote positive emotional responses such as gratitude and
renewed love for friends and family
, ■ Positive emotions contribute to building social, intellectual and physical
resources that can be helpful in dealing with stress
■ Strong emotions may hamper or enhance our ability to cope with stress,
depending on our level of arousal and the task complexity
■ The inverted U-hypothesis predicts that:
● For low complexity tasks, a high level of arousal is best
● For medium complexity tasks, a medium level of arousal is best
● For high complexity tasks, a low level of
arousal is best
○ Physiological responses
■ Endocrine system consists of glands that secrete
chemicals called hormones into the bloodstream
■ Two brain-body pathways control our physiological
responses to stress via signals to the endocrine
system (consists of glands that secrete chemicals into
the bloodstream)
● Both pathways are activated by
hypothalamus
● The first pathway is routed through the ANS,
it stimulates the adrenal medulla in the central
part of the adrenal glands to release
catecholamines into the bloodstream. These
hormones trigger several physiological
changes that prepare the body for action. This
includes an increase in heart rate and blood
flow to the brain and muscles, faster
respiration and oxygen consumption for heightened alertness, and the
inhibition of digestive processes to conserve energy. Additionally, the
pupils dilate, enhancing visual sensitivity.
● The second pathway describes a more direct interaction between the
brain and the endocrine system. The hypothalamus communicates with
the pituitary gland, often referred to as the master gland. The pituitary
releases ACTH, which prompts the adrenal cortex to secrete
corticosteroids. These hormones are crucial in stress response, enhancing
energy availability and reducing tissue inflammation upon injury.
Cortisol, a key corticosteroid, is commonly measured in studies to assess
human stress levels.
■ Stress can suppress certain aspects of the immune response
■ Stress can interfere with neurogenesis, the formation of new neurons in the brain
■ Hans Selye's general adaptation syndrome is a model of the body's stress
response consisting of three stages
● Alarm reaction - initial response to threat, fight or flight response
engages
