© Jeroen Goots Professor Roger Vergauwen
Academiejaar 2025-2026 KU Leuven
RUSSIAN PHILOSOPHY
,TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 A Word of History ........................................................................................................... 5
1.1 Ancient Russia 5
1.2 The Mongols and the Emergence of Moscow 5
1.3 Byzantine influence of Russian philosophy 6
1.3.1 Distinction external and internal philosophy 6
1.3.2 Neoplatonism 6
1.3.3 Theocracy 7
1.3.4 Monasticism 7
1.3.5 Starets 8
1.3.6 Urodstvo 8
2 Gregory Skovoroda ......................................................................................................... 9
2.1 Life 9
2.2 Works 9
2.3 Themes 9
2.3.1 Metaphysics/ontology 9
2.3.2 Epistemology 10
2.3.3 Ethics 11
2.3.4 Conclusion 12
3 The Enlightenment of the 18th century ...................................................................... 13
3.1 General information on the Enlightenment 13
3.2 Alexander Radishchev 14
3.2.1 Life 14
3.2.2 Political philosophy 14
3.2.3 Metaphysics 15
4 The Reaction: Schellingianism and the Liubomudry ................................................ 16
4.1 Influence shifts 16
4.2 Fichte and Schelling 16
4.2.1 Johann Gottlieb Fichte 16
4.2.2 Friedrich von Schelling 17
4.2.3 Influence in Russia 18
4.3 Pyotr Chaadayev 18
4.3.1 General 18
4.3.2 Metaphysics 19
4.3.3 Views on Russia 20
5 Slavophiles and Westernizers....................................................................................... 22
5.1 Introduction 22
5.2 Ivan Kireyevsky 23
5.2.1 Life 23
5.2.2 Criticism against rationalism 23
5.2.3 Relation between philosophy and religion 24
5.2.4 Theory of knowledge 25
5.3 G.W.F. Hegel 26
© Jeroen Goots Russian philosophy 2
, 5.3.1 Life 26
5.3.2 Thesis, antithesis, synthesis 27
5.3.3 Self-development of the Spirit (Geist) 27
5.3.4 First stage: the Spirit in itself 27
5.3.5 Second stage: the Spirit for itself 28
5.3.6 Third stage: the Spirit in and for itself 28
5.4 Alexander Herzen 30
5.4.1 Life 30
5.4.2 Works 31
5.4.3 Philosophy of action 31
5.4.4 Epistemology 33
6 Nihilism and Populism.................................................................................................. 35
6.1 Nihilism 35
6.2 Nikolay Chernyshevsky 36
6.2.1 Life 36
6.2.2 Works 37
6.2.3 Aesthetics 37
6.2.4 Anthropology 38
6.3 Populism 39
6.3.1 Introduction 39
6.3.2 Properties of populism 39
6.3.3 Differences among populists 40
6.4 Pyotr Lavrov 41
6.4.1 Life 41
6.4.2 Works 41
6.4.3 Populism and history 42
6.4.4 Sociological conceptions 43
7 The Critics of Religion and Culture ............................................................................ 45
7.1 Introduction 45
7.2 Fyodor Dostoevsky 45
7.2.1 Life and works 45
7.2.2 Inadequacy of science 46
7.2.3 Problem of freedom 48
7.2.4 Religion, death and eternity 50
7.2.5 Summary 51
7.3 Lev Tolstoy 52
7.3.1 Life 52
7.3.2 Works 53
7.3.3 General influences on his work 53
7.3.4 Reason and belief 55
7.3.5 Criticism of civilization and social ideals 56
7.3.6 Philosophy of history 57
7.3.7 Comparison between Dostoevsky and Tolstoy 58
8 Metaphysical Idealism in Russia ................................................................................. 60
8.1 Introduction 60
8.2 Vladimir Solovyov 60
© Jeroen Goots Russian philosophy 3
, 8.2.1 Life 60
8.2.2 Works 61
8.2.3 General view on philosophy 62
8.2.4 Epistemology 63
8.2.5 Ethics 64
8.2.6 Philosophy of reintegration 65
9 The Turbulent Start of the 20th Century and the Exiled Philosophy in Russia ...... 67
9.1 The Beginning of the Signpost movement 67
9.2 Nikolai Berdyaev 67
9.2.1 Life 67
9.2.2 Works 68
9.2.3 Metaphysics 68
9.2.4 Freedom 70
9.2.5 Philosophy of history 71
10 Anarchism and the Rise of Marxism in Russia .......................................................... 75
10.1 Introduction 75
10.2 Mikhail Bakunin 75
10.2.1 Life 75
10.2.2 Philosophical views 76
10.2.3 Social philosophy 77
10.3 Georgi Plekhanov 79
10.3.1 Life 79
10.3.2 Works 79
10.3.3 General 79
10.3.4 Epistemology 80
10.3.5 Ethics and the freedom of the individual 81
11 Soviet philosophy .......................................................................................................... 85
11.1 General remarks 85
11.2 The Development of Soviet Philosophy: Seven Periods 85
11.2.1 1917-1930: period of the “wedding” of politics and philosophy 85
11.2.2 1931-1946: the construction of soviet philosophy 86
11.2.3 1947-1954: the period of cold war in philosophy 86
11.2.4 1955-1966: period of the defrosting of philosophy 86
11.2.5 1967-1975: period of the marginalization 87
11.2.6 1976-1985: period of stagnation in philosophy 87
11.2.7 1986-1989: period of perestroyka and the end of the philosophical culture
87
© Jeroen Goots Russian philosophy 4
,1 A WORD OF HISTORY
1.1 ANCIENT RUSSIA
9th century: migrating peoples
- Russia was a collection of cities that gradually coalesced into an empire
- Varangians (a Scandinavian people) crossed Baltic sea and landed in Eastern Europe
- Rurik
o was the leader of the Varangians
o 862: led his people to the city of Novgorod
- Oleg
o successor of Rurik
o extended the power of the city southward
o 882: gained control of Kiev
- result: Kievan Rus’
o unified, dynastic state
o Kiev as a trading route between Scandinavia and Constantinople
10th century: Vladimir I
o Russian area: Black Sea, Caucasus mountains, Volga River
o established a state religion, Greek orthodoxy
11th century: Yaroslav the Wise
- successor of Vladimir I
- codified laws, encouraged the arts
- divided his kingdom among his children, which didn’t go well
- result: Kievan Rus’ broke apart (12th century)
1054: Great Schism
- = break of communion between the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church
1.2 THE MONGOLS AND THE EMERGENCE OF MOSCOW
13th century: invasions
- Mongols: destroyed almost all the major cities of Kievan Rus’
- Swedes, Livonian Brothers of the Sword: invasion attempts
14th century:
- Moscow gained influence
© Jeroen Goots Russian philosophy 5
, o Russian Orthodox Church was transferred to Moscow
o Moscow became spiritual capital of Russia
- 1453: Constantinople was taken by the Ottoman empire
o Russia was cut off of its sources
o result: Moskow became even more important (also religiously)
o Moskow became third Rome (after Constantinople and Rome)
- concl: Russian philosophy had roots in Byzantian thinking
o that influence was present until 18th century and even later on
o cf. Skovoroda
1.3 BYZANTINE INFLUENCE OF RUSSIAN PHILOSOPHY
1.3.1 Distinction external and internal philosophy
Russian worldview in 16th and 17th century was not the same as the western worldview
- west: Renaissance → not present at all in Russian territory
- Russia: Christian ideology was always present
John of Damascus (8th century): The Fount of Knowledge
- sixfold definition of philosophy:
o def 1: knowledge of being things in as far as they are
o def 2: knowledge of divine and human things
o def 3: learning to die
o def 4: becoming like God
o def 5: art of arts and science of sciences
o def 6: love of Christ
- leads to dichotomy:
o external philosophy: science and art
o internal philosophy: an individual becoming more and more perfect so that s/he
can become like God
§ = becoming like God
§ mystical part of philosophy
1.3.2 Neoplatonism
founded by Plotinus: Enneads
- aim: try and revive the earlier Platonism and harmonize that with Christian theology
emanation
© Jeroen Goots Russian philosophy 6
, - most important principle in Neoplatonism
- all existing things are derived from the One
o = the foundation of everything
o = that to which everything is supposed to return
o the One is in and for itself, transcends space and time, emanates from itself
o comparison: the Sun emanates
- different stages of emanation:
o 1st: the One
o 2nd: the Spirit (nous)
§ contains set of platonic Ideas
o 3rd: the World Soul (psyche)
§ set of psychological elements
o 4th: matter
§ the farther away from the One, the worse
- humans:
o has elements from the One and from the other stages, including matter
o salvation process: must try go up and become one with the One
o philosophy could show the individual that mystical process
1.3.3 Theocracy
= idea that the Tzar is the representative of God
- implication: religion is not merely historical or social but a search for the liberation of
man from the world, from history
1.3.4 Monasticism
monasticism
- integral full belief can be fully experienced in the mystical, communal life of monks
- philosophy was practiced and ‘developed’ in monastic circles
2 most important monasteries:
- Zagaroh
- Optima Pustim
Kiev
- most important city for monasticism
- Pyotr Mohyla
© Jeroen Goots Russian philosophy 7
, o monk from the Kiev Cave Monastery who was one of the first to travel and study
abroad, to Europe (e.g. Paris)
o was familiar with western philosophy (!)
o founded Kyiv-Mohyla Academy, where Latin and Greek was studied (!)
- result: new academies
1.3.5 Starets
= the “elders”
- functions as venerated adviser and teacher
- charismatic spiritual leaders whose wisdom stems from God as obtained from ascetic
experience
- consulted by the common folk for the religious feeling
1.3.6 Urodstvo
= “foolishness for Christ”
- refers to behavior such as giving up all one’s worldly possessions upon joining
an ascetic order or religious, Christian life
- monks who practice Christianity in a mystical way
- aim = show people how they should live their beliefs
- e.g. Rasputin
© Jeroen Goots Russian philosophy 8
Academiejaar 2025-2026 KU Leuven
RUSSIAN PHILOSOPHY
,TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 A Word of History ........................................................................................................... 5
1.1 Ancient Russia 5
1.2 The Mongols and the Emergence of Moscow 5
1.3 Byzantine influence of Russian philosophy 6
1.3.1 Distinction external and internal philosophy 6
1.3.2 Neoplatonism 6
1.3.3 Theocracy 7
1.3.4 Monasticism 7
1.3.5 Starets 8
1.3.6 Urodstvo 8
2 Gregory Skovoroda ......................................................................................................... 9
2.1 Life 9
2.2 Works 9
2.3 Themes 9
2.3.1 Metaphysics/ontology 9
2.3.2 Epistemology 10
2.3.3 Ethics 11
2.3.4 Conclusion 12
3 The Enlightenment of the 18th century ...................................................................... 13
3.1 General information on the Enlightenment 13
3.2 Alexander Radishchev 14
3.2.1 Life 14
3.2.2 Political philosophy 14
3.2.3 Metaphysics 15
4 The Reaction: Schellingianism and the Liubomudry ................................................ 16
4.1 Influence shifts 16
4.2 Fichte and Schelling 16
4.2.1 Johann Gottlieb Fichte 16
4.2.2 Friedrich von Schelling 17
4.2.3 Influence in Russia 18
4.3 Pyotr Chaadayev 18
4.3.1 General 18
4.3.2 Metaphysics 19
4.3.3 Views on Russia 20
5 Slavophiles and Westernizers....................................................................................... 22
5.1 Introduction 22
5.2 Ivan Kireyevsky 23
5.2.1 Life 23
5.2.2 Criticism against rationalism 23
5.2.3 Relation between philosophy and religion 24
5.2.4 Theory of knowledge 25
5.3 G.W.F. Hegel 26
© Jeroen Goots Russian philosophy 2
, 5.3.1 Life 26
5.3.2 Thesis, antithesis, synthesis 27
5.3.3 Self-development of the Spirit (Geist) 27
5.3.4 First stage: the Spirit in itself 27
5.3.5 Second stage: the Spirit for itself 28
5.3.6 Third stage: the Spirit in and for itself 28
5.4 Alexander Herzen 30
5.4.1 Life 30
5.4.2 Works 31
5.4.3 Philosophy of action 31
5.4.4 Epistemology 33
6 Nihilism and Populism.................................................................................................. 35
6.1 Nihilism 35
6.2 Nikolay Chernyshevsky 36
6.2.1 Life 36
6.2.2 Works 37
6.2.3 Aesthetics 37
6.2.4 Anthropology 38
6.3 Populism 39
6.3.1 Introduction 39
6.3.2 Properties of populism 39
6.3.3 Differences among populists 40
6.4 Pyotr Lavrov 41
6.4.1 Life 41
6.4.2 Works 41
6.4.3 Populism and history 42
6.4.4 Sociological conceptions 43
7 The Critics of Religion and Culture ............................................................................ 45
7.1 Introduction 45
7.2 Fyodor Dostoevsky 45
7.2.1 Life and works 45
7.2.2 Inadequacy of science 46
7.2.3 Problem of freedom 48
7.2.4 Religion, death and eternity 50
7.2.5 Summary 51
7.3 Lev Tolstoy 52
7.3.1 Life 52
7.3.2 Works 53
7.3.3 General influences on his work 53
7.3.4 Reason and belief 55
7.3.5 Criticism of civilization and social ideals 56
7.3.6 Philosophy of history 57
7.3.7 Comparison between Dostoevsky and Tolstoy 58
8 Metaphysical Idealism in Russia ................................................................................. 60
8.1 Introduction 60
8.2 Vladimir Solovyov 60
© Jeroen Goots Russian philosophy 3
, 8.2.1 Life 60
8.2.2 Works 61
8.2.3 General view on philosophy 62
8.2.4 Epistemology 63
8.2.5 Ethics 64
8.2.6 Philosophy of reintegration 65
9 The Turbulent Start of the 20th Century and the Exiled Philosophy in Russia ...... 67
9.1 The Beginning of the Signpost movement 67
9.2 Nikolai Berdyaev 67
9.2.1 Life 67
9.2.2 Works 68
9.2.3 Metaphysics 68
9.2.4 Freedom 70
9.2.5 Philosophy of history 71
10 Anarchism and the Rise of Marxism in Russia .......................................................... 75
10.1 Introduction 75
10.2 Mikhail Bakunin 75
10.2.1 Life 75
10.2.2 Philosophical views 76
10.2.3 Social philosophy 77
10.3 Georgi Plekhanov 79
10.3.1 Life 79
10.3.2 Works 79
10.3.3 General 79
10.3.4 Epistemology 80
10.3.5 Ethics and the freedom of the individual 81
11 Soviet philosophy .......................................................................................................... 85
11.1 General remarks 85
11.2 The Development of Soviet Philosophy: Seven Periods 85
11.2.1 1917-1930: period of the “wedding” of politics and philosophy 85
11.2.2 1931-1946: the construction of soviet philosophy 86
11.2.3 1947-1954: the period of cold war in philosophy 86
11.2.4 1955-1966: period of the defrosting of philosophy 86
11.2.5 1967-1975: period of the marginalization 87
11.2.6 1976-1985: period of stagnation in philosophy 87
11.2.7 1986-1989: period of perestroyka and the end of the philosophical culture
87
© Jeroen Goots Russian philosophy 4
,1 A WORD OF HISTORY
1.1 ANCIENT RUSSIA
9th century: migrating peoples
- Russia was a collection of cities that gradually coalesced into an empire
- Varangians (a Scandinavian people) crossed Baltic sea and landed in Eastern Europe
- Rurik
o was the leader of the Varangians
o 862: led his people to the city of Novgorod
- Oleg
o successor of Rurik
o extended the power of the city southward
o 882: gained control of Kiev
- result: Kievan Rus’
o unified, dynastic state
o Kiev as a trading route between Scandinavia and Constantinople
10th century: Vladimir I
o Russian area: Black Sea, Caucasus mountains, Volga River
o established a state religion, Greek orthodoxy
11th century: Yaroslav the Wise
- successor of Vladimir I
- codified laws, encouraged the arts
- divided his kingdom among his children, which didn’t go well
- result: Kievan Rus’ broke apart (12th century)
1054: Great Schism
- = break of communion between the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church
1.2 THE MONGOLS AND THE EMERGENCE OF MOSCOW
13th century: invasions
- Mongols: destroyed almost all the major cities of Kievan Rus’
- Swedes, Livonian Brothers of the Sword: invasion attempts
14th century:
- Moscow gained influence
© Jeroen Goots Russian philosophy 5
, o Russian Orthodox Church was transferred to Moscow
o Moscow became spiritual capital of Russia
- 1453: Constantinople was taken by the Ottoman empire
o Russia was cut off of its sources
o result: Moskow became even more important (also religiously)
o Moskow became third Rome (after Constantinople and Rome)
- concl: Russian philosophy had roots in Byzantian thinking
o that influence was present until 18th century and even later on
o cf. Skovoroda
1.3 BYZANTINE INFLUENCE OF RUSSIAN PHILOSOPHY
1.3.1 Distinction external and internal philosophy
Russian worldview in 16th and 17th century was not the same as the western worldview
- west: Renaissance → not present at all in Russian territory
- Russia: Christian ideology was always present
John of Damascus (8th century): The Fount of Knowledge
- sixfold definition of philosophy:
o def 1: knowledge of being things in as far as they are
o def 2: knowledge of divine and human things
o def 3: learning to die
o def 4: becoming like God
o def 5: art of arts and science of sciences
o def 6: love of Christ
- leads to dichotomy:
o external philosophy: science and art
o internal philosophy: an individual becoming more and more perfect so that s/he
can become like God
§ = becoming like God
§ mystical part of philosophy
1.3.2 Neoplatonism
founded by Plotinus: Enneads
- aim: try and revive the earlier Platonism and harmonize that with Christian theology
emanation
© Jeroen Goots Russian philosophy 6
, - most important principle in Neoplatonism
- all existing things are derived from the One
o = the foundation of everything
o = that to which everything is supposed to return
o the One is in and for itself, transcends space and time, emanates from itself
o comparison: the Sun emanates
- different stages of emanation:
o 1st: the One
o 2nd: the Spirit (nous)
§ contains set of platonic Ideas
o 3rd: the World Soul (psyche)
§ set of psychological elements
o 4th: matter
§ the farther away from the One, the worse
- humans:
o has elements from the One and from the other stages, including matter
o salvation process: must try go up and become one with the One
o philosophy could show the individual that mystical process
1.3.3 Theocracy
= idea that the Tzar is the representative of God
- implication: religion is not merely historical or social but a search for the liberation of
man from the world, from history
1.3.4 Monasticism
monasticism
- integral full belief can be fully experienced in the mystical, communal life of monks
- philosophy was practiced and ‘developed’ in monastic circles
2 most important monasteries:
- Zagaroh
- Optima Pustim
Kiev
- most important city for monasticism
- Pyotr Mohyla
© Jeroen Goots Russian philosophy 7
, o monk from the Kiev Cave Monastery who was one of the first to travel and study
abroad, to Europe (e.g. Paris)
o was familiar with western philosophy (!)
o founded Kyiv-Mohyla Academy, where Latin and Greek was studied (!)
- result: new academies
1.3.5 Starets
= the “elders”
- functions as venerated adviser and teacher
- charismatic spiritual leaders whose wisdom stems from God as obtained from ascetic
experience
- consulted by the common folk for the religious feeling
1.3.6 Urodstvo
= “foolishness for Christ”
- refers to behavior such as giving up all one’s worldly possessions upon joining
an ascetic order or religious, Christian life
- monks who practice Christianity in a mystical way
- aim = show people how they should live their beliefs
- e.g. Rasputin
© Jeroen Goots Russian philosophy 8
