POLS 102 LATEST 2026 EXAM QUESTIONS AND
ANSWERS RATED A+
✔✔Status Quo - ✔✔The current policy that stays in place unless Congress passes a
new law and pivotal actors prefer the change.
✔✔Parliamentary majorities vs. U.S. Separation of Powers - ✔✔Prime ministers always
have a legislative majority to pass their agenda; U.S. presidents often face a Congress
that may not support them.
✔✔Divided Government - ✔✔When the president's party does not control both
chambers of Congress, making lawmaking, confirmations, and spending priorities
harder.
✔✔No Power to Require Congress to Vote - ✔✔U.S. presidents cannot force Congress
to vote on their proposals, unlike prime ministers.
✔✔Pivotal Actors - ✔✔Key decision-makers (median voter, filibuster pivot, president,
veto override pivot) whose preferences decide whether policy can change.
✔✔Median Voter / Filibuster Pivot / Presidential Veto - ✔✔Policy change requires
support from the median member, the 60-vote filibuster pivot, and the president; if any
prefer the status quo, change fails.
✔✔Bush Social Security Proposal / Biden Childcare Proposal - ✔✔Examples where
presidents failed to pass major proposals even with unified government because pivotal
members of their own party preferred the status quo.
✔✔Weak Party Leader - ✔✔U.S. presidents cannot control party nominations because
primaries choose candidates, giving them less leverage over their own party.
✔✔Persuasion - ✔✔The president tries to convince members that supporting him is in
their political interest; works better when he is popular or viewed as knowledgeable.
✔✔Going Public - ✔✔The president pressures Congress by rallying public opinion;
worked for Reagan but is harder today due to fragmented media.
✔✔Veto Bargaining - ✔✔The president uses veto threats or actual vetoes to force
Congress to change bills.
✔✔Unilateral Policymaking - ✔✔Presidents act alone through executive orders and
directing agencies when Congress is gridlocked.
, ✔✔Vast Delegation of Authority - ✔✔Congress has delegated major policymaking
powers to agencies and the president through past laws.
✔✔Executive Orders - ✔✔Presidential directives that can change policy quickly within
existing delegated authority.
✔✔Red Rock Country - ✔✔Example of Clinton using a proclamation to protect land
without Congress, showing unilateral power.
✔✔Polarization's Role - ✔✔A polarized Congress struggles to pass laws, increasing
reliance on unilateral presidential action.
✔✔Take Care Clause - ✔✔Requires the president to enforce the laws; used to justify
directing and overseeing agencies.
✔✔Vesting Clause - ✔✔States "executive power" is vested in the president; used to
justify broad presidential authority.
✔✔Appointments (Arthur Hayes example) - ✔✔Presidents influence policy by
appointing agency leaders who shape regulatory decisions.
✔✔OIRA / OMB - ✔✔Presidential offices that review and modify agency regulations to
align with the president's goals.
✔✔Unitary Executive Theory - ✔✔The belief that Article II gives the president strong
control over the entire executive branch unless explicitly limited.
✔✔Internment of Japanese Americans - ✔✔Example of presidents using extremely
broad unilateral power during emergencies.
✔✔President's Incentive to Expand Power - ✔✔Presidents push boundaries because
acting unilaterally helps them achieve policy goals when Congress won't act.
✔✔Hierarchy - ✔✔Agencies are structured in levels from cabinet secretaries to division
leaders to frontline workers.
✔✔Expertise - ✔✔Bureaucrats have specialized knowledge needed to implement
complex policies.
✔✔Political Appointees - ✔✔Leaders chosen by the president and confirmed by the
Senate who direct agencies.
✔✔Civil Service Employees - ✔✔Career workers who stay across administrations and
provide long-term expertise.
ANSWERS RATED A+
✔✔Status Quo - ✔✔The current policy that stays in place unless Congress passes a
new law and pivotal actors prefer the change.
✔✔Parliamentary majorities vs. U.S. Separation of Powers - ✔✔Prime ministers always
have a legislative majority to pass their agenda; U.S. presidents often face a Congress
that may not support them.
✔✔Divided Government - ✔✔When the president's party does not control both
chambers of Congress, making lawmaking, confirmations, and spending priorities
harder.
✔✔No Power to Require Congress to Vote - ✔✔U.S. presidents cannot force Congress
to vote on their proposals, unlike prime ministers.
✔✔Pivotal Actors - ✔✔Key decision-makers (median voter, filibuster pivot, president,
veto override pivot) whose preferences decide whether policy can change.
✔✔Median Voter / Filibuster Pivot / Presidential Veto - ✔✔Policy change requires
support from the median member, the 60-vote filibuster pivot, and the president; if any
prefer the status quo, change fails.
✔✔Bush Social Security Proposal / Biden Childcare Proposal - ✔✔Examples where
presidents failed to pass major proposals even with unified government because pivotal
members of their own party preferred the status quo.
✔✔Weak Party Leader - ✔✔U.S. presidents cannot control party nominations because
primaries choose candidates, giving them less leverage over their own party.
✔✔Persuasion - ✔✔The president tries to convince members that supporting him is in
their political interest; works better when he is popular or viewed as knowledgeable.
✔✔Going Public - ✔✔The president pressures Congress by rallying public opinion;
worked for Reagan but is harder today due to fragmented media.
✔✔Veto Bargaining - ✔✔The president uses veto threats or actual vetoes to force
Congress to change bills.
✔✔Unilateral Policymaking - ✔✔Presidents act alone through executive orders and
directing agencies when Congress is gridlocked.
, ✔✔Vast Delegation of Authority - ✔✔Congress has delegated major policymaking
powers to agencies and the president through past laws.
✔✔Executive Orders - ✔✔Presidential directives that can change policy quickly within
existing delegated authority.
✔✔Red Rock Country - ✔✔Example of Clinton using a proclamation to protect land
without Congress, showing unilateral power.
✔✔Polarization's Role - ✔✔A polarized Congress struggles to pass laws, increasing
reliance on unilateral presidential action.
✔✔Take Care Clause - ✔✔Requires the president to enforce the laws; used to justify
directing and overseeing agencies.
✔✔Vesting Clause - ✔✔States "executive power" is vested in the president; used to
justify broad presidential authority.
✔✔Appointments (Arthur Hayes example) - ✔✔Presidents influence policy by
appointing agency leaders who shape regulatory decisions.
✔✔OIRA / OMB - ✔✔Presidential offices that review and modify agency regulations to
align with the president's goals.
✔✔Unitary Executive Theory - ✔✔The belief that Article II gives the president strong
control over the entire executive branch unless explicitly limited.
✔✔Internment of Japanese Americans - ✔✔Example of presidents using extremely
broad unilateral power during emergencies.
✔✔President's Incentive to Expand Power - ✔✔Presidents push boundaries because
acting unilaterally helps them achieve policy goals when Congress won't act.
✔✔Hierarchy - ✔✔Agencies are structured in levels from cabinet secretaries to division
leaders to frontline workers.
✔✔Expertise - ✔✔Bureaucrats have specialized knowledge needed to implement
complex policies.
✔✔Political Appointees - ✔✔Leaders chosen by the president and confirmed by the
Senate who direct agencies.
✔✔Civil Service Employees - ✔✔Career workers who stay across administrations and
provide long-term expertise.
