The Origins of Psychology
While the psychology of today reflects the discipline's rich and varied history, the origins of
psychology differ significantly from contemporary conceptions of the field. In order to gain a
full understanding of psychology, you need to spend some time exploring its history and
origins.
How did psychology originate? When did it begin? Who were the people responsible for
establishing psychology as a separate science?
Why Study Psychology History?
Contemporary psychology is interested in an enormous range of topics, looking at human
behavior and mental process from the neural level to the cultural level. Psychologists study
human issues that begin before birth and continue until death. By understanding the history
of psychology, you can gain a better understanding of how these topics are studied and
what we have learned thus far.
From its earliest beginnings, psychology has been faced with a number of questions. The
initial question of how to define psychology helped establish it as a science separate from
physiology and philosophy.
Additional questions that psychologists have faced throughout history include:
Is psychology really a science?
Should psychologists use research to influence public policy, education, and other
aspects of human behavior?
Should psychology focus on observable behaviors, or on internal mental processes?
What research methods should be used to study psychology?
Which topics and issues should psychology be concerned with?
Background: Philosophy and Physiology
While psychology did not emerge as a separate discipline until the late 1800s, its earliest
history can be traced back to Egypt, Greece, China, Persia, and India. In the 17th century,
the French philosopher Rene Descartes introduced the idea of dualism, which asserted that
the mind and body were two entities that interact to form the human experience.
Many other issues still debated by psychologists today, such as the relative contributions
of nature vs. nurture, are rooted in these early philosophical traditions.
So what makes psychology different from philosophy? While early philosophers relied on
methods such as observation and logic, today’s psychologists utilize scientific methodologies
to study and draw conclusions about human thought and behavior.
Physiology also contributed to psychology’s eventual emergence as a scientific discipline.
Early physiological research on the brain and behavior had a dramatic impact on psychology,
ultimately contributing to applying scientific methodologies to the study of human thought
and behavior.
,Meaning and Definitions of Psychology:
Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. Behaviour includes all
of our outward or overt actions and reactions, such as verbal and facial expressions and
movements.
Mental processes refer to all the internal and covert activity of our mind such as thinking,
feeling and remembering. It is a scientific study because to study behaviour and mental
processes, the psychologists use the scientific methods for understanding more precisely
and accurately.
The word Psychology has its origin from two Greek words ‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’, ‘psyche’
means ‘soul’ and ‘logos’ means ‘study’. Thus literally, Psychology means ‘the study of soul’
or ‘science of soul’.
1. The first definition of the Psychology was the study of the soul:
The earliest attempts at defining Psychology owe their origin to the most mysterious and
philosophical concept, namely that of soul. What is soul? How can it be studied? The
inability to find clear answers to such questions led some ancient Greek philosophers to
define psychology as the study of the mind.
2. In terms of the study of the mind:
Although the word mind was less mysterious and vague than soul, yet it also faced the same
questions, namely what is mind? How can it be studied, etc. This definition was also
rejected.
3. In terms of the study of consciousness:
The description and explanation of the states of consciousness is the task of Psychology
which is usually done by the instrument introspection—process of looking within.
4. In terms of the study of behaviour:
The most modern and widely accepted definition of psychology even today, is the study of
behaviour, both humans and animals.
5. William McDougall:
In his book An Outline of Psychology, “Psychology is a science which aims to give us better
understanding and control of the behaviour of the organism as a whole”.
6. JB Watson:
Psychology is “the science of behaviour” (taking into account the human as well as animal
behaviour).
7. NL Munn:
“Psychology is the science and the properly trained psychologist is a scientist, or at least a
practitioner who uses scientific methods and information resulting from scientific
investigations”.
,Psychology: What it is and what it is not
Psychology is an exciting field. It is at once familiar, exotic, surprising, and challenging. Most
of all, psychology is changing. Psychology is about each of us. It asks us to take a reflective
attitude as we inquire, “How can we step outside of ourselves to look objectively at how we
live, think, feel, and act?” psychologists believe the answer is through careful thought,
observation, and inquiry. (Coon & Mitterer, (2008). According to Parameswaran & Beena
(2002), some people regard psychology as a part of philosophy. Others equate it with magic.
Some view it as madness. Still others are of the opinion that psychologists are either mystics
or mysterious people, their interest in psychology mainly arises from uninformed curiosity.
They are of the view that if they studied psychology, they would learn about miracles,
mysteries, madness and that it would be an exotic experience. Many of them feel that the
main use of psychology is in treating mentally ill individuals. While certainly this is an
important area of application, it is not the only area. Today, psychology finds useful
applications in an individual’s life almost from the womb to the tomb. Psychology, like all
academic disciplines, has its own concepts such as intelligence, personality, stress, learning,
memory, thinking, perception etc. Many of the concepts of psychology are familiar to you,
but many of them are new. The topics included in psychology are: the nervous system,
sensation and perception, learning and memory, intelligence, language and thinking, growth
and development, motivation and emotion, personality, stress, psychological disorders,
ways of treating those disorders, sexual behaviour, and the behaviour of people in social
settings such as groups and organisations. The goals of psychology, like other sciences, are
to describe, explain, predict and control (Coon & Mitterer, 2008) the phenomena it studies.
Psychology, thus, attempts to describe, explain, predict and control behaviour and mental
processes. Psychology as a science of behaviour, attempts to explain the ‘why’ and ‘how’ of
behaviour. The knowledge of psychology can also be applied to solve various problems
facing human beings, be it at home, society, work place or in the whole world.
Pseudo-Sciences/Pseudo-Psychology
There are many ‘professionals’ who practice applying psychology without any type of
training in psychology. They are somewhat like quacks or ‘jhola chhap’ doctors. They may be
called ‘pseudo-psychologists’. In order to further clarify, let us describe some of the pseudo-
psychologies.
A gemologist, graphologist, numerologist, palmist or an astrologer, all claim to solve your
problems of life and predict your future. They seem to be psychologists. But these
disciplines are categorized under “pseudo- psychology” or “pseudosciences”. A
Pseudopsychology is any unfounded system that superficially resembles psychology. Many
pseudopsychologies give the appearance of science but are actually false. (Pseudo means
“false”). Pseudopsychologies change little over time because their followers avoid evidence
that contradicts their beliefs. Scientists, in contrast, actively look for contradictions as a way
to advance knowledge. They are skeptical critics of their own theories (Schick & Vaughn,
2001). Descriptions of some of the pseudo-psychologies are given below:
, 1) Palmistry: False system that claims to reveal personality traits and to predict the future
by “reading” lines on the palms of the hands. It is also called ‘chiromancy’. ‘Chiromancy’
comes from the Greek word for hand (Cheir). The most famous 19th century palmist, went
by the name of Cheiro. Palmistry is the practice of telling fortunes from the lines, marks and
patterns on the hands, particularly, the palms.
2) Phrenology: False and antiquated system based on the belief that personality traits are
revealed by the shape of the skull. Phrenology was started in the 19th century by a German
anatomy teacher, Franz Gall. His theory - ‘Personality was revealed by bumps on the skull’.
Phrenologists assumed that parts of the brain governed different personality characteristics.
Like muscles, parts of the brain that were used more often, tended to get bigger. In turn,
these enlarged areas pushed on the skull causing bumps. With advances in Neurology, this
was shown to be impossible, and phrenology declined. Although some brain areas do have
specific functions, they are not directly related to specific personality traits.
3) Graphology: False system based on the belief that handwriting can reveal personality
traits. Indicates that personality is revealed by a person’s handwriting. Some companies
in USA use handwriting analysis to evaluate job applicants. Definitely, valuable in detecting
forgeries. Careful test of accuracy in psychological studies have shown that graphologists
score close to zero in rating personality.
4) Numerology: False system based on the belief that personality traits are revealed by
certain numbers, usually birthdays ( date, month and year ).They are the database from
which a numerologist is able to describe you, sight unseen. Number values are assigned to
the letters in your name. By adding these, with the numbers in your birth date, in a
multitude of combinations, a numerologist establishes your key numbers. He then
interprets the meaning of these key numbers, which results in a complete description of
your personal characteristics.
5) Astrology: False system based on the belief that human behaviour is influenced by the
position of planets and stars. It is based on the assumption that the position of the planets
and stars at the time of a person’s birth determines personality characteristics and affects
behaviour. In its modern guise, astrology is based on the assertion that the apparent
positions of certain objects in the solar system at the time an individual is born, are
somehow correlated with his or her personality, activities, preferences and even major life
events such as marriages, divorces, accidents etc. Pseudo-psychologies are not supported by
scientific evidence. Belief in pseudopsychologies is based on the following thinking errors: i)
Uncritical acceptance: The tendency to believe generally positive or flattering descriptions
of oneself. ii) Fallacy of positive instances: The tendency to remember or notice information
that fits one’s expectations, while forgetting discrepancies. iii) Barnum effect: The tendency
to consider a personal description accurate if it is stated in general terms. (Coon & Mitterer,
2008). Psychology is neither common sense nor pseudoscience. Contrary to pseudosciences
scientific psychology is based on objectivity, empirical evidence and critical thinking.
While the psychology of today reflects the discipline's rich and varied history, the origins of
psychology differ significantly from contemporary conceptions of the field. In order to gain a
full understanding of psychology, you need to spend some time exploring its history and
origins.
How did psychology originate? When did it begin? Who were the people responsible for
establishing psychology as a separate science?
Why Study Psychology History?
Contemporary psychology is interested in an enormous range of topics, looking at human
behavior and mental process from the neural level to the cultural level. Psychologists study
human issues that begin before birth and continue until death. By understanding the history
of psychology, you can gain a better understanding of how these topics are studied and
what we have learned thus far.
From its earliest beginnings, psychology has been faced with a number of questions. The
initial question of how to define psychology helped establish it as a science separate from
physiology and philosophy.
Additional questions that psychologists have faced throughout history include:
Is psychology really a science?
Should psychologists use research to influence public policy, education, and other
aspects of human behavior?
Should psychology focus on observable behaviors, or on internal mental processes?
What research methods should be used to study psychology?
Which topics and issues should psychology be concerned with?
Background: Philosophy and Physiology
While psychology did not emerge as a separate discipline until the late 1800s, its earliest
history can be traced back to Egypt, Greece, China, Persia, and India. In the 17th century,
the French philosopher Rene Descartes introduced the idea of dualism, which asserted that
the mind and body were two entities that interact to form the human experience.
Many other issues still debated by psychologists today, such as the relative contributions
of nature vs. nurture, are rooted in these early philosophical traditions.
So what makes psychology different from philosophy? While early philosophers relied on
methods such as observation and logic, today’s psychologists utilize scientific methodologies
to study and draw conclusions about human thought and behavior.
Physiology also contributed to psychology’s eventual emergence as a scientific discipline.
Early physiological research on the brain and behavior had a dramatic impact on psychology,
ultimately contributing to applying scientific methodologies to the study of human thought
and behavior.
,Meaning and Definitions of Psychology:
Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. Behaviour includes all
of our outward or overt actions and reactions, such as verbal and facial expressions and
movements.
Mental processes refer to all the internal and covert activity of our mind such as thinking,
feeling and remembering. It is a scientific study because to study behaviour and mental
processes, the psychologists use the scientific methods for understanding more precisely
and accurately.
The word Psychology has its origin from two Greek words ‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’, ‘psyche’
means ‘soul’ and ‘logos’ means ‘study’. Thus literally, Psychology means ‘the study of soul’
or ‘science of soul’.
1. The first definition of the Psychology was the study of the soul:
The earliest attempts at defining Psychology owe their origin to the most mysterious and
philosophical concept, namely that of soul. What is soul? How can it be studied? The
inability to find clear answers to such questions led some ancient Greek philosophers to
define psychology as the study of the mind.
2. In terms of the study of the mind:
Although the word mind was less mysterious and vague than soul, yet it also faced the same
questions, namely what is mind? How can it be studied, etc. This definition was also
rejected.
3. In terms of the study of consciousness:
The description and explanation of the states of consciousness is the task of Psychology
which is usually done by the instrument introspection—process of looking within.
4. In terms of the study of behaviour:
The most modern and widely accepted definition of psychology even today, is the study of
behaviour, both humans and animals.
5. William McDougall:
In his book An Outline of Psychology, “Psychology is a science which aims to give us better
understanding and control of the behaviour of the organism as a whole”.
6. JB Watson:
Psychology is “the science of behaviour” (taking into account the human as well as animal
behaviour).
7. NL Munn:
“Psychology is the science and the properly trained psychologist is a scientist, or at least a
practitioner who uses scientific methods and information resulting from scientific
investigations”.
,Psychology: What it is and what it is not
Psychology is an exciting field. It is at once familiar, exotic, surprising, and challenging. Most
of all, psychology is changing. Psychology is about each of us. It asks us to take a reflective
attitude as we inquire, “How can we step outside of ourselves to look objectively at how we
live, think, feel, and act?” psychologists believe the answer is through careful thought,
observation, and inquiry. (Coon & Mitterer, (2008). According to Parameswaran & Beena
(2002), some people regard psychology as a part of philosophy. Others equate it with magic.
Some view it as madness. Still others are of the opinion that psychologists are either mystics
or mysterious people, their interest in psychology mainly arises from uninformed curiosity.
They are of the view that if they studied psychology, they would learn about miracles,
mysteries, madness and that it would be an exotic experience. Many of them feel that the
main use of psychology is in treating mentally ill individuals. While certainly this is an
important area of application, it is not the only area. Today, psychology finds useful
applications in an individual’s life almost from the womb to the tomb. Psychology, like all
academic disciplines, has its own concepts such as intelligence, personality, stress, learning,
memory, thinking, perception etc. Many of the concepts of psychology are familiar to you,
but many of them are new. The topics included in psychology are: the nervous system,
sensation and perception, learning and memory, intelligence, language and thinking, growth
and development, motivation and emotion, personality, stress, psychological disorders,
ways of treating those disorders, sexual behaviour, and the behaviour of people in social
settings such as groups and organisations. The goals of psychology, like other sciences, are
to describe, explain, predict and control (Coon & Mitterer, 2008) the phenomena it studies.
Psychology, thus, attempts to describe, explain, predict and control behaviour and mental
processes. Psychology as a science of behaviour, attempts to explain the ‘why’ and ‘how’ of
behaviour. The knowledge of psychology can also be applied to solve various problems
facing human beings, be it at home, society, work place or in the whole world.
Pseudo-Sciences/Pseudo-Psychology
There are many ‘professionals’ who practice applying psychology without any type of
training in psychology. They are somewhat like quacks or ‘jhola chhap’ doctors. They may be
called ‘pseudo-psychologists’. In order to further clarify, let us describe some of the pseudo-
psychologies.
A gemologist, graphologist, numerologist, palmist or an astrologer, all claim to solve your
problems of life and predict your future. They seem to be psychologists. But these
disciplines are categorized under “pseudo- psychology” or “pseudosciences”. A
Pseudopsychology is any unfounded system that superficially resembles psychology. Many
pseudopsychologies give the appearance of science but are actually false. (Pseudo means
“false”). Pseudopsychologies change little over time because their followers avoid evidence
that contradicts their beliefs. Scientists, in contrast, actively look for contradictions as a way
to advance knowledge. They are skeptical critics of their own theories (Schick & Vaughn,
2001). Descriptions of some of the pseudo-psychologies are given below:
, 1) Palmistry: False system that claims to reveal personality traits and to predict the future
by “reading” lines on the palms of the hands. It is also called ‘chiromancy’. ‘Chiromancy’
comes from the Greek word for hand (Cheir). The most famous 19th century palmist, went
by the name of Cheiro. Palmistry is the practice of telling fortunes from the lines, marks and
patterns on the hands, particularly, the palms.
2) Phrenology: False and antiquated system based on the belief that personality traits are
revealed by the shape of the skull. Phrenology was started in the 19th century by a German
anatomy teacher, Franz Gall. His theory - ‘Personality was revealed by bumps on the skull’.
Phrenologists assumed that parts of the brain governed different personality characteristics.
Like muscles, parts of the brain that were used more often, tended to get bigger. In turn,
these enlarged areas pushed on the skull causing bumps. With advances in Neurology, this
was shown to be impossible, and phrenology declined. Although some brain areas do have
specific functions, they are not directly related to specific personality traits.
3) Graphology: False system based on the belief that handwriting can reveal personality
traits. Indicates that personality is revealed by a person’s handwriting. Some companies
in USA use handwriting analysis to evaluate job applicants. Definitely, valuable in detecting
forgeries. Careful test of accuracy in psychological studies have shown that graphologists
score close to zero in rating personality.
4) Numerology: False system based on the belief that personality traits are revealed by
certain numbers, usually birthdays ( date, month and year ).They are the database from
which a numerologist is able to describe you, sight unseen. Number values are assigned to
the letters in your name. By adding these, with the numbers in your birth date, in a
multitude of combinations, a numerologist establishes your key numbers. He then
interprets the meaning of these key numbers, which results in a complete description of
your personal characteristics.
5) Astrology: False system based on the belief that human behaviour is influenced by the
position of planets and stars. It is based on the assumption that the position of the planets
and stars at the time of a person’s birth determines personality characteristics and affects
behaviour. In its modern guise, astrology is based on the assertion that the apparent
positions of certain objects in the solar system at the time an individual is born, are
somehow correlated with his or her personality, activities, preferences and even major life
events such as marriages, divorces, accidents etc. Pseudo-psychologies are not supported by
scientific evidence. Belief in pseudopsychologies is based on the following thinking errors: i)
Uncritical acceptance: The tendency to believe generally positive or flattering descriptions
of oneself. ii) Fallacy of positive instances: The tendency to remember or notice information
that fits one’s expectations, while forgetting discrepancies. iii) Barnum effect: The tendency
to consider a personal description accurate if it is stated in general terms. (Coon & Mitterer,
2008). Psychology is neither common sense nor pseudoscience. Contrary to pseudosciences
scientific psychology is based on objectivity, empirical evidence and critical thinking.
