PATHOPHYSIOLOGY DNP SOUTH ALABAMA NU 545 NEWEST
ACTUAL EXAM WITH COMPLETE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS//
VERIFIED//GRADED A+//
What is chemical signaling?
Communication at a distance, hormonal, neurohormonal,
paracrine, autocrine, and neurotransmitter
Paracrine signaling: secrete mediators that are absorbed or
destroyed. Involves different cell types. Secretes to adjacent
target cells (next to)
Autocrine signaling: produce signals that they themselves
respond to. Secreting hormones to stimulate self (i.e. Cancer).
Hormonal signaling: endocrine cells secrete hormones to
produce a response in another set of cells GO THROUGH
BLOODSTREAM to a target cell (i.e. thyroid-stimulating
hormone).
Neurohormonal signaling: hormones released by
neurosecretory neurons ex: fight or flight response(epi/nor)
through the bloodstream to target. (pf 21)
How is glucose transported from the blood to the cell?
Passive protein channel: passive mediated (facilitated
diffusion) using protein transporter down concentration
gradient with no energy expenditure. Happens by a uniport
transporter. It demonstrates saturation kinetics, transport
system is saturated when all glucose specific receptors are
occupied. (p.31)
Page 1 of 46
,Understand the transportation of K+ and Na across plasma
membranes.
Active transport potassium and sodium use direct energy of
ATP in plasma membrane; for every 3 molecules of Na that
move out, 2 K+ molecules enter. This causes the inside of the
cell to be more negative than the outside. The 3 Na bind to
carrier and at the same time ATP binds to the carrier. ATP
breaks, the carrier changes shape and releases Na. The
carrier attracts 2 K, the carrier returns to original shape and
releases K and ATP remnant. (32)
Understand membrane transport.
Membrane transport protein sometimes called mediated
transport. Movement of a substance across a membrane in
which a protein transport moves molecules against (or up) the
concentration gradient. This requires the expenditure of
energy. (pg 32).
Understand the function of cAMP.
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate-one of the 2 major
messenger pathways. Binding of the ligand to its surface
receptor eventually activates the enzyme adenylyl cyclase on
the inner surface of the membrane. (pg 22)
Page 2 of 46
,Know the causes of electrolyte abnormalities
(hypermagnesemia, hypomagnesemia, hypokalemia,
hypocalcemia).
Hypermagnesemia- Usually renal insufficiency or failure: also
excessive intake of magnesium-containing antacids, adrenal
insufficiency.
Hypomagnesemia- Malnutrition, malabsorption syndromes,
alcoholism, urinary losses (renal tubular dysfunction, loop
diuretics).
Hypokalemia- The most common causes of hypokalemia are
abnormal losses from either the kidneys or the GI tract are
associated with diarrhea, laxative misuse, vomiting, and
ileostomy drainage.
-Renal losses occur when the patient has a low magnesium
level or is diuresing, particularly in the patient with an
elevated aldosterone level. Aldosterone is released when the
circulating blood volume is low; causing sodium retention in
the kidneys resulting in loss of potassium in the urine.
Hypocalcemia-inadequate intestinal absorption, deposition of
ionized calcium into the bone or soft tissue, blood
administration, or decreases in PTH and vitamin D levels,
nutritional deficiencies.
(pg 120)
What is active transport?
Page 3 of 46
, the movement of ions or molecules across a cell membrane
into a region of a higher concentration, assisted by enzymes
and requiring energy. (pg 28)
What are cytokines?
Growth factors (also called cytokines) stimulate an increase in
cell mass or cell growth by promoting the synthesis of
proteins and other macromolecules and inhibiting their
degradation.
Cytokines (peptides) that transmit signals within and between
cells. They have a major role in the regulation of tissue growth
and development. Having nutrients isn't enough for a cell to
proliferate it also must receive stimulatory chemical signals
(growth factors) from other cells Ex. Platelet-derived growth
factor (PDGF). (pg 38 &200)
What is the relation between ischemia and ATP?
Hypoxia leads to ischemia which leads to decreased
mitochondrial phosphorylation resulting in insufficient ATP
production, leading to increased anaerobic metabolism which
generates ATP from glycogen when there is insufficient O2;
then glycogen stores are depleted and anaerobic metabolism
ceases
Leads to increased NA and CA cellular swelling and diffusion
of K out of the cell.
(pg 57)
Page 4 of 46
ACTUAL EXAM WITH COMPLETE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS//
VERIFIED//GRADED A+//
What is chemical signaling?
Communication at a distance, hormonal, neurohormonal,
paracrine, autocrine, and neurotransmitter
Paracrine signaling: secrete mediators that are absorbed or
destroyed. Involves different cell types. Secretes to adjacent
target cells (next to)
Autocrine signaling: produce signals that they themselves
respond to. Secreting hormones to stimulate self (i.e. Cancer).
Hormonal signaling: endocrine cells secrete hormones to
produce a response in another set of cells GO THROUGH
BLOODSTREAM to a target cell (i.e. thyroid-stimulating
hormone).
Neurohormonal signaling: hormones released by
neurosecretory neurons ex: fight or flight response(epi/nor)
through the bloodstream to target. (pf 21)
How is glucose transported from the blood to the cell?
Passive protein channel: passive mediated (facilitated
diffusion) using protein transporter down concentration
gradient with no energy expenditure. Happens by a uniport
transporter. It demonstrates saturation kinetics, transport
system is saturated when all glucose specific receptors are
occupied. (p.31)
Page 1 of 46
,Understand the transportation of K+ and Na across plasma
membranes.
Active transport potassium and sodium use direct energy of
ATP in plasma membrane; for every 3 molecules of Na that
move out, 2 K+ molecules enter. This causes the inside of the
cell to be more negative than the outside. The 3 Na bind to
carrier and at the same time ATP binds to the carrier. ATP
breaks, the carrier changes shape and releases Na. The
carrier attracts 2 K, the carrier returns to original shape and
releases K and ATP remnant. (32)
Understand membrane transport.
Membrane transport protein sometimes called mediated
transport. Movement of a substance across a membrane in
which a protein transport moves molecules against (or up) the
concentration gradient. This requires the expenditure of
energy. (pg 32).
Understand the function of cAMP.
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate-one of the 2 major
messenger pathways. Binding of the ligand to its surface
receptor eventually activates the enzyme adenylyl cyclase on
the inner surface of the membrane. (pg 22)
Page 2 of 46
,Know the causes of electrolyte abnormalities
(hypermagnesemia, hypomagnesemia, hypokalemia,
hypocalcemia).
Hypermagnesemia- Usually renal insufficiency or failure: also
excessive intake of magnesium-containing antacids, adrenal
insufficiency.
Hypomagnesemia- Malnutrition, malabsorption syndromes,
alcoholism, urinary losses (renal tubular dysfunction, loop
diuretics).
Hypokalemia- The most common causes of hypokalemia are
abnormal losses from either the kidneys or the GI tract are
associated with diarrhea, laxative misuse, vomiting, and
ileostomy drainage.
-Renal losses occur when the patient has a low magnesium
level or is diuresing, particularly in the patient with an
elevated aldosterone level. Aldosterone is released when the
circulating blood volume is low; causing sodium retention in
the kidneys resulting in loss of potassium in the urine.
Hypocalcemia-inadequate intestinal absorption, deposition of
ionized calcium into the bone or soft tissue, blood
administration, or decreases in PTH and vitamin D levels,
nutritional deficiencies.
(pg 120)
What is active transport?
Page 3 of 46
, the movement of ions or molecules across a cell membrane
into a region of a higher concentration, assisted by enzymes
and requiring energy. (pg 28)
What are cytokines?
Growth factors (also called cytokines) stimulate an increase in
cell mass or cell growth by promoting the synthesis of
proteins and other macromolecules and inhibiting their
degradation.
Cytokines (peptides) that transmit signals within and between
cells. They have a major role in the regulation of tissue growth
and development. Having nutrients isn't enough for a cell to
proliferate it also must receive stimulatory chemical signals
(growth factors) from other cells Ex. Platelet-derived growth
factor (PDGF). (pg 38 &200)
What is the relation between ischemia and ATP?
Hypoxia leads to ischemia which leads to decreased
mitochondrial phosphorylation resulting in insufficient ATP
production, leading to increased anaerobic metabolism which
generates ATP from glycogen when there is insufficient O2;
then glycogen stores are depleted and anaerobic metabolism
ceases
Leads to increased NA and CA cellular swelling and diffusion
of K out of the cell.
(pg 57)
Page 4 of 46
