Colleges Communicatie in
organisatie
Inhoudsopgave
College 1: introductie........................................................................................................................8
Wat houden de hoorcolleges in?........................................................................................................8
Wat houden de werkcolleges in?........................................................................................................8
Vragen stellen....................................................................................................................................8
De toetsing voor Communicatie in Organisaties................................................................................8
Multiple choice examen (telt 60%)................................................................................................8
Individuele opdracht: De paper (40%)...........................................................................................8
Hoe maak je de paper (stappen & deadlines)................................................................................8
Wat is er belangrijk voor de opdrachten?..........................................................................................9
De mens kan op grote schaal en flexibel samenwerken, dankzij;.......................................................9
De samenwerking tussen mensen;.....................................................................................................9
Wat zijn organisaties?........................................................................................................................9
Je hebt verschillende vormen van organisaties, namelijk organisaties gericht op;........................9
Wat is communicatie?......................................................................................................................10
Type communicatie in organisaties:.............................................................................................10
Er zijn dus verschillende functies:................................................................................................10
Communicatiestromen:....................................................................................................................10
Organisatietheorieën;......................................................................................................................10
Klassieke organisatietheorieën; VOOR TENTAMEN..........................................................................10
Deze theoriën gingen veelal vanuit de ‘machine methaphor’:....................................................10
Scientific Management (Frederik Taylor; 1856-1915)......................................................................11
Machine metaphor...........................................................................................................................11
College 2: Human Relations: motivatie en communicatie................................................................11
Tentamen.........................................................................................................................................11
Theory of Classical Management (Henri Fayol)................................................................................12
Henri Fayol (Fransman, 1841-1925).................................................................................................12
Hij definieerde vijf managementfuncties:....................................................................................12
Fayol onderscheidde ook 14 managementprincipes, onder andere:................................................12
Kritiek op Classical Management:....................................................................................................13
Human Relations: Elton Mayo (1880-1949).....................................................................................13
Hawthone studies (1927-1932), o.a.:...............................................................................................13
Human relations: kritiek...................................................................................................................14
Wat is motivatie?.........................................................................................................................14
Wat is tevredenheid?...................................................................................................................14
Wat is betrokkenheid?.................................................................................................................14
Affective commitment:.....................................................................................................................14
Continuance commitment................................................................................................................15
Normative commitment:..................................................................................................................15
Verschillende soorten theoriën, onder andere:.................................................................................15
1. Maslow (1943): Hierarchy of needs.........................................................................................15
Kritiek op de theorie van Maslow................................................................................................15
2. Herzberg (1959): Dual Factor Theorie......................................................................................16
1
, Behoeftetheorieën: conclusie......................................................................................................16
Procestheorieën: Equity Theory (Adams, 1963)...........................................................................16
Wat doen mensen als ze niet gelijk worden behandeld?.............................................................17
Greenberg (1990).............................................................................................................................17
Kritiek op de Equilty Theory:........................................................................................................17
College 3: Communicatieprocessen: verbale en non-verbale communicatie...................................18
Wat is communicatie?......................................................................................................................18
Betekenissen....................................................................................................................................18
De betekenissen van communicatie zijn er op verschillende niveaus:.........................................18
Het communicatieproces..................................................................................................................19
Verschillende discussiepunten:....................................................................................................19
Communicatie in organisaties..........................................................................................................20
Verbale communicatie.....................................................................................................................20
Overdracht van onder andere......................................................................................................20
Functies verbale communicatie in organisaties................................................................................21
Voordelen van gesproken communicatie.....................................................................................21
Non-verbale communicatie.............................................................................................................21
Functies van non-verbale communicatie in interactie, onder andere...............................................21
Non-verbale uitingen........................................................................................................................21
Non-verbale communicatie..............................................................................................................22
Kinesics.............................................................................................................................................22
Fysiek voorkomen.............................................................................................................................23
Proxemics.........................................................................................................................................23
Paralanguage...................................................................................................................................24
Chronemics.......................................................................................................................................24
Verstoringen in communicatie..........................................................................................................24
Verstoringen in communicatie..........................................................................................................24
Belemmeringen/verstoringen bij ontvanger en decodering:............................................................24
College 4: Interpersoonlijke relaties................................................................................................25
Cognitieve schema’s.........................................................................................................................25
Gevolgen informatieverwerking onder andere:................................................................................25
Schema met inconsistente informatie..............................................................................................26
Interpersoonlijke relaties................................................................................................................26
Aantrekkingskracht..........................................................................................................................26
Propinquity effect........................................................................................................................26
Fysieke aantrekkelijkheid.............................................................................................................26
‘Wat mooi is, is goed’ stereotype.....................................................................................................27
Similarity-attraction paradigm (Byrne, 1971)...................................................................................27
Similarity-attraction.........................................................................................................................27
Reciprocal liking...............................................................................................................................27
Responsiveness.................................................................................................................................28
Mimicry............................................................................................................................................28
Emotionele intelligentie....................................................................................................................28
Wat laat je wel/niet van jezelf zien?................................................................................................29
Context en interpersoonlijke communicatie: organisatiecultuur......................................................29
College 5: Samenwerken en communicatie in groepen....................................................................30
Wat zijn groepen?............................................................................................................................30
Groepen............................................................................................................................................30
Wanneer ontstaat een groepsgevoel?..............................................................................................30
2
, De behoefte om erbij te horen..........................................................................................................30
Belang van groepen voor identiteit..................................................................................................31
Toetreden tot een groep...................................................................................................................31
Hoe reageert de groep op nieuwkomers?........................................................................................31
Cognitieve dissonantie.................................................................................................................32
De kracht van groepsnormen...........................................................................................................32
Groepsnormen..................................................................................................................................32
Conformeren....................................................................................................................................34
Voorbeeld: het experiment van Ash............................................................................................34
Hoe werkt conformeren?.............................................................................................................34
De consequentie van niet-conformeren............................................................................................34
Rol van organisatiecultuur...............................................................................................................34
De kracht van rollen.........................................................................................................................34
Rolconflicten.....................................................................................................................................35
Sociale cohesie.................................................................................................................................35
Waargenomen cohesie.....................................................................................................................35
Taak cohesie.....................................................................................................................................36
Cohesie.............................................................................................................................................36
College 6: Besluitvorming................................................................................................................36
Consensus beslisregel.......................................................................................................................36
Internationale beslisregel.................................................................................................................37
Besluitvorming in groepen: Soorten beslissingen.............................................................................37
Groepsbesluitvorming: voordelen....................................................................................................37
Groepen genereren niet altijd meer ideeën dan individuelen...........................................................38
Ook maken groepen niet altijd optimale beslissingen, denk aan oorlog..........................................38
Groepsbesluitvorming: nadelen........................................................................................................38
Polarisatie (Stoner, 1961).................................................................................................................39
Polarisatie in groepen.......................................................................................................................39
Wat moet Helen doen?.....................................................................................................................39
Polarisatie........................................................................................................................................40
Discussie versterkt dominante groepswaarden................................................................................40
Verklaringen van polarisatie: social comparison theory...................................................................41
Verklaringen van polarisatie: persuasive arguments theory............................................................41
Groupthink (Janis, 1972) JA: ONHOUDT DEZE NAAM.......................................................................41
Groupthink: symptomen..............................................................................................................42
Risicofactoren...................................................................................................................................43
Biased information sampling............................................................................................................43
Hoe negatieve effecten te voorkomen?............................................................................................43
College 7: Computer-gemedieerde communicatie vanaf hier ook cio bijbel erbij............................44
Wat is de oudste computer?.............................................................................................................44
De oudste computer?.......................................................................................................................45
Charles Babbage..........................................................................................................................45
Konrade Zuse...............................................................................................................................45
De voordelen van computer-gemedieerde communicatie................................................................45
Nadelen Computer-gemedieerde communicatie..............................................................................46
Effecten van CMC (computer- gemedieerde communicatie) op interacties:.....................................46
Social Presence Theory (Short, Williams & Christy, 1976)................................................................46
De eerste onderzoeken: verschillen media in ‘social presence’?.......................................................46
Maar praktijk blijkt tegenwoordig anders....................................................................................47
Bovendien…......................................................................................................................................47
3
, Social information Processing model (Walther, 1992):....................................................................47
Hyperpersonal model (Walther, 1996)............................................................................................48
Hyperpersoonlijke communicatie................................................................................................48
Laten mensen meer van zichzelf zien tijdens CMC?..........................................................................48
Vormen mensen positievere oordelen over elkaar tijdens CMC? (Nowak, Watt, & Walther, 2005). 49
Maar er zijn ook negatieve effecten van CMC op interpersoonlijke interacties: ‘phubbing’.............49
Er zijn ook negatieve effecten van multimediagebruik op concentratie en prestaties......................50
Effecten van CMC in groepen: rol van anonimiteit (dit hoort ook al bij theorie beneden)...............50
Reduced Social Cues benadering (onder andere door Kiesler, 1986)...............................................50
Twee vormen van bewustzijn:.....................................................................................................50
Trick or treat experiment (Diener et al., 1976).................................................................................51
Anonymous lab coat study (Zimbardo, 1970)...................................................................................51
Kanttekeningen Reduced Social Cues benadering............................................................................51
Costume experiment (Johnson & Drowning, 1979)..........................................................................51
Social indentity model of deindividuating effects (SIDE Theory) (Lea & Spears, 1991; Postmes, 1997)
.........................................................................................................................................................52
Postmes, Spears, Sakhel & De Groot (2001).....................................................................................52
Theorieën met betrekking tot mediakeuze:......................................................................................53
Media Richness Theory (Daft & Lengel, 1984)..................................................................................53
Dual Capacity Model (Sitkin, Sutcliffe, & Barrios-Choplin, 1992)......................................................54
Social information............................................................................................................................55
Wat weten we nu over de effecten van Computer-gemedieerde communicatie?............................55
College 8: Conflicten........................................................................................................................55
Conflicten en organisatietheorieën..................................................................................................56
De definitie van ‘conflict’..................................................................................................................56
Stadia conflicten...............................................................................................................................57
Oorzaken van conflicten...................................................................................................................57
Conflict: niveaus...............................................................................................................................57
Winnen/samenwerken.....................................................................................................................57
Robbers Cave experiment.................................................................................................................58
Competitie........................................................................................................................................58
Delen................................................................................................................................................59
Controleren......................................................................................................................................59
Werken.............................................................................................................................................60
Taak conflict.................................................................................................................................60
Proces conflict..............................................................................................................................60
Rationeel conflict.........................................................................................................................60
Individuele verschillen:.....................................................................................................................60
Persoonlijke waarden:......................................................................................................................61
Omgevingsfactoren: organisatiecultuur en klimaat.........................................................................61
Dual Concern Model.........................................................................................................................62
Hoe kan je een conflict voorkomen?.................................................................................................63
Is het slecht om deze technieken te gebruiken om een conflict uit de weg te gaan?........................63
Conflictstijlen zijn afhankelijk van onder andere:.............................................................................63
Effecten van conflicten.....................................................................................................................65
Pestgedrag.......................................................................................................................................65
Oorzaken pestgedrag velerlei, onder andere:..............................................................................65
Conflictmanagement........................................................................................................................66
4
organisatie
Inhoudsopgave
College 1: introductie........................................................................................................................8
Wat houden de hoorcolleges in?........................................................................................................8
Wat houden de werkcolleges in?........................................................................................................8
Vragen stellen....................................................................................................................................8
De toetsing voor Communicatie in Organisaties................................................................................8
Multiple choice examen (telt 60%)................................................................................................8
Individuele opdracht: De paper (40%)...........................................................................................8
Hoe maak je de paper (stappen & deadlines)................................................................................8
Wat is er belangrijk voor de opdrachten?..........................................................................................9
De mens kan op grote schaal en flexibel samenwerken, dankzij;.......................................................9
De samenwerking tussen mensen;.....................................................................................................9
Wat zijn organisaties?........................................................................................................................9
Je hebt verschillende vormen van organisaties, namelijk organisaties gericht op;........................9
Wat is communicatie?......................................................................................................................10
Type communicatie in organisaties:.............................................................................................10
Er zijn dus verschillende functies:................................................................................................10
Communicatiestromen:....................................................................................................................10
Organisatietheorieën;......................................................................................................................10
Klassieke organisatietheorieën; VOOR TENTAMEN..........................................................................10
Deze theoriën gingen veelal vanuit de ‘machine methaphor’:....................................................10
Scientific Management (Frederik Taylor; 1856-1915)......................................................................11
Machine metaphor...........................................................................................................................11
College 2: Human Relations: motivatie en communicatie................................................................11
Tentamen.........................................................................................................................................11
Theory of Classical Management (Henri Fayol)................................................................................12
Henri Fayol (Fransman, 1841-1925).................................................................................................12
Hij definieerde vijf managementfuncties:....................................................................................12
Fayol onderscheidde ook 14 managementprincipes, onder andere:................................................12
Kritiek op Classical Management:....................................................................................................13
Human Relations: Elton Mayo (1880-1949).....................................................................................13
Hawthone studies (1927-1932), o.a.:...............................................................................................13
Human relations: kritiek...................................................................................................................14
Wat is motivatie?.........................................................................................................................14
Wat is tevredenheid?...................................................................................................................14
Wat is betrokkenheid?.................................................................................................................14
Affective commitment:.....................................................................................................................14
Continuance commitment................................................................................................................15
Normative commitment:..................................................................................................................15
Verschillende soorten theoriën, onder andere:.................................................................................15
1. Maslow (1943): Hierarchy of needs.........................................................................................15
Kritiek op de theorie van Maslow................................................................................................15
2. Herzberg (1959): Dual Factor Theorie......................................................................................16
1
, Behoeftetheorieën: conclusie......................................................................................................16
Procestheorieën: Equity Theory (Adams, 1963)...........................................................................16
Wat doen mensen als ze niet gelijk worden behandeld?.............................................................17
Greenberg (1990).............................................................................................................................17
Kritiek op de Equilty Theory:........................................................................................................17
College 3: Communicatieprocessen: verbale en non-verbale communicatie...................................18
Wat is communicatie?......................................................................................................................18
Betekenissen....................................................................................................................................18
De betekenissen van communicatie zijn er op verschillende niveaus:.........................................18
Het communicatieproces..................................................................................................................19
Verschillende discussiepunten:....................................................................................................19
Communicatie in organisaties..........................................................................................................20
Verbale communicatie.....................................................................................................................20
Overdracht van onder andere......................................................................................................20
Functies verbale communicatie in organisaties................................................................................21
Voordelen van gesproken communicatie.....................................................................................21
Non-verbale communicatie.............................................................................................................21
Functies van non-verbale communicatie in interactie, onder andere...............................................21
Non-verbale uitingen........................................................................................................................21
Non-verbale communicatie..............................................................................................................22
Kinesics.............................................................................................................................................22
Fysiek voorkomen.............................................................................................................................23
Proxemics.........................................................................................................................................23
Paralanguage...................................................................................................................................24
Chronemics.......................................................................................................................................24
Verstoringen in communicatie..........................................................................................................24
Verstoringen in communicatie..........................................................................................................24
Belemmeringen/verstoringen bij ontvanger en decodering:............................................................24
College 4: Interpersoonlijke relaties................................................................................................25
Cognitieve schema’s.........................................................................................................................25
Gevolgen informatieverwerking onder andere:................................................................................25
Schema met inconsistente informatie..............................................................................................26
Interpersoonlijke relaties................................................................................................................26
Aantrekkingskracht..........................................................................................................................26
Propinquity effect........................................................................................................................26
Fysieke aantrekkelijkheid.............................................................................................................26
‘Wat mooi is, is goed’ stereotype.....................................................................................................27
Similarity-attraction paradigm (Byrne, 1971)...................................................................................27
Similarity-attraction.........................................................................................................................27
Reciprocal liking...............................................................................................................................27
Responsiveness.................................................................................................................................28
Mimicry............................................................................................................................................28
Emotionele intelligentie....................................................................................................................28
Wat laat je wel/niet van jezelf zien?................................................................................................29
Context en interpersoonlijke communicatie: organisatiecultuur......................................................29
College 5: Samenwerken en communicatie in groepen....................................................................30
Wat zijn groepen?............................................................................................................................30
Groepen............................................................................................................................................30
Wanneer ontstaat een groepsgevoel?..............................................................................................30
2
, De behoefte om erbij te horen..........................................................................................................30
Belang van groepen voor identiteit..................................................................................................31
Toetreden tot een groep...................................................................................................................31
Hoe reageert de groep op nieuwkomers?........................................................................................31
Cognitieve dissonantie.................................................................................................................32
De kracht van groepsnormen...........................................................................................................32
Groepsnormen..................................................................................................................................32
Conformeren....................................................................................................................................34
Voorbeeld: het experiment van Ash............................................................................................34
Hoe werkt conformeren?.............................................................................................................34
De consequentie van niet-conformeren............................................................................................34
Rol van organisatiecultuur...............................................................................................................34
De kracht van rollen.........................................................................................................................34
Rolconflicten.....................................................................................................................................35
Sociale cohesie.................................................................................................................................35
Waargenomen cohesie.....................................................................................................................35
Taak cohesie.....................................................................................................................................36
Cohesie.............................................................................................................................................36
College 6: Besluitvorming................................................................................................................36
Consensus beslisregel.......................................................................................................................36
Internationale beslisregel.................................................................................................................37
Besluitvorming in groepen: Soorten beslissingen.............................................................................37
Groepsbesluitvorming: voordelen....................................................................................................37
Groepen genereren niet altijd meer ideeën dan individuelen...........................................................38
Ook maken groepen niet altijd optimale beslissingen, denk aan oorlog..........................................38
Groepsbesluitvorming: nadelen........................................................................................................38
Polarisatie (Stoner, 1961).................................................................................................................39
Polarisatie in groepen.......................................................................................................................39
Wat moet Helen doen?.....................................................................................................................39
Polarisatie........................................................................................................................................40
Discussie versterkt dominante groepswaarden................................................................................40
Verklaringen van polarisatie: social comparison theory...................................................................41
Verklaringen van polarisatie: persuasive arguments theory............................................................41
Groupthink (Janis, 1972) JA: ONHOUDT DEZE NAAM.......................................................................41
Groupthink: symptomen..............................................................................................................42
Risicofactoren...................................................................................................................................43
Biased information sampling............................................................................................................43
Hoe negatieve effecten te voorkomen?............................................................................................43
College 7: Computer-gemedieerde communicatie vanaf hier ook cio bijbel erbij............................44
Wat is de oudste computer?.............................................................................................................44
De oudste computer?.......................................................................................................................45
Charles Babbage..........................................................................................................................45
Konrade Zuse...............................................................................................................................45
De voordelen van computer-gemedieerde communicatie................................................................45
Nadelen Computer-gemedieerde communicatie..............................................................................46
Effecten van CMC (computer- gemedieerde communicatie) op interacties:.....................................46
Social Presence Theory (Short, Williams & Christy, 1976)................................................................46
De eerste onderzoeken: verschillen media in ‘social presence’?.......................................................46
Maar praktijk blijkt tegenwoordig anders....................................................................................47
Bovendien…......................................................................................................................................47
3
, Social information Processing model (Walther, 1992):....................................................................47
Hyperpersonal model (Walther, 1996)............................................................................................48
Hyperpersoonlijke communicatie................................................................................................48
Laten mensen meer van zichzelf zien tijdens CMC?..........................................................................48
Vormen mensen positievere oordelen over elkaar tijdens CMC? (Nowak, Watt, & Walther, 2005). 49
Maar er zijn ook negatieve effecten van CMC op interpersoonlijke interacties: ‘phubbing’.............49
Er zijn ook negatieve effecten van multimediagebruik op concentratie en prestaties......................50
Effecten van CMC in groepen: rol van anonimiteit (dit hoort ook al bij theorie beneden)...............50
Reduced Social Cues benadering (onder andere door Kiesler, 1986)...............................................50
Twee vormen van bewustzijn:.....................................................................................................50
Trick or treat experiment (Diener et al., 1976).................................................................................51
Anonymous lab coat study (Zimbardo, 1970)...................................................................................51
Kanttekeningen Reduced Social Cues benadering............................................................................51
Costume experiment (Johnson & Drowning, 1979)..........................................................................51
Social indentity model of deindividuating effects (SIDE Theory) (Lea & Spears, 1991; Postmes, 1997)
.........................................................................................................................................................52
Postmes, Spears, Sakhel & De Groot (2001).....................................................................................52
Theorieën met betrekking tot mediakeuze:......................................................................................53
Media Richness Theory (Daft & Lengel, 1984)..................................................................................53
Dual Capacity Model (Sitkin, Sutcliffe, & Barrios-Choplin, 1992)......................................................54
Social information............................................................................................................................55
Wat weten we nu over de effecten van Computer-gemedieerde communicatie?............................55
College 8: Conflicten........................................................................................................................55
Conflicten en organisatietheorieën..................................................................................................56
De definitie van ‘conflict’..................................................................................................................56
Stadia conflicten...............................................................................................................................57
Oorzaken van conflicten...................................................................................................................57
Conflict: niveaus...............................................................................................................................57
Winnen/samenwerken.....................................................................................................................57
Robbers Cave experiment.................................................................................................................58
Competitie........................................................................................................................................58
Delen................................................................................................................................................59
Controleren......................................................................................................................................59
Werken.............................................................................................................................................60
Taak conflict.................................................................................................................................60
Proces conflict..............................................................................................................................60
Rationeel conflict.........................................................................................................................60
Individuele verschillen:.....................................................................................................................60
Persoonlijke waarden:......................................................................................................................61
Omgevingsfactoren: organisatiecultuur en klimaat.........................................................................61
Dual Concern Model.........................................................................................................................62
Hoe kan je een conflict voorkomen?.................................................................................................63
Is het slecht om deze technieken te gebruiken om een conflict uit de weg te gaan?........................63
Conflictstijlen zijn afhankelijk van onder andere:.............................................................................63
Effecten van conflicten.....................................................................................................................65
Pestgedrag.......................................................................................................................................65
Oorzaken pestgedrag velerlei, onder andere:..............................................................................65
Conflictmanagement........................................................................................................................66
4
