Most southern continent in the world, containing the South Pole and stretching an area • CO2 is released into the atmosphere that is stores in ice sheets, which causes global United Nations The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (1991)
of 14 million km2. The majority of Antarctica is covered in ice, making it the largest ice temperatures to rise more, enhancing global warming on the Antarctic. The UN has the potential to lead an important role in protecting the Antarctic, as it has the • Bans all activities relating to mineral reasources, aside from for scientific
sheet in the world- it holds 90% of the earths surface freshwater. • The albedo effect (process of white surfaces reflecting solar radiation back into the ability to set global laws and regulations in order to protect the Antarctic. However, for purposes. This means there can be no mining or fuel extraction on the continent.
atmosphere) is lessened due to less ice sheets, meaning more heat is absorbed back deceased the un has noticeably had little to do with the protection of the Antarctic. • Established the Committee for environmental protection, an advisory that provides
Climate and enviornment
into oceans. This has caused a rise in ocean temperatures, enhancing the advice and reccommendations to members.
• Entirely unique, and is one of the most extreme environments on the planet.
devastating effects. The main UN organisation associated with Antarctic protection is the UN Environment • Created and added to regulations that were out out in the original treaty,
• The coldest place on earth, temperatures averaging -40c (-39c average at the
Programme (UNEP). However, this organisation has had little influence on the Antarctic including additions to waste manegament and marine pollution.
South Pole, alothough coastal areas are warmer). Fishing and whaling specifically. The UNEP has attended ATS meetings and contributed to some reports, but its
• One of the driest places on earth. Coastal areas of Antarctica receive the most Antarctica is under threat from unsustainavle fishing, which disrupts the food chain of legislation and goals do not cover the Antarctic. The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Reasources is a treaty
prepcipation, averaging 400-600mm+ a year. the fragile enviornment. Overfishing removes vital animals in the already small food chain, Although the UNEP does not work to protect the Antarctic directly, their work indirectly created in 1980 to protect marine life populations, especially krill.
• Inland however, there is barely any precipitation and some places average under such as overfishing of krill which removes other marine animal food sources. Krill is the contributes to the governance to Antarctica. The UNEP’s legislation and research into • Within the convection, the Commission on the conservation of Antarctic marine living
50mm precipitation a year. The UK’s average rainfall is 5 times larger, yet most fished marine animal, with 150-200,000 tonnes fished annually, and the majority of global Enviornemntal problems, such as ozone depletion and global warming, work to protect reasoucres was established, who meet annually to discuss the management of fisheries
Antarctica is 58 times bigger. this being Antarctic krill. Despite regulations, there are still reports of illegal, unreported Antarctica from the effects of these issues. and other issues.
Antarctica is so dry it is considered to be a desert, making it scientifically the largest and unregulated fishing. This fishing is unsustainable and causes wide scale marine • Within the commission is the scientific committee who provide advice and scientific
desert in the world. The McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica are though to have not seen habitat damage. International Whaling commission
information.
rain in nearly 2 million years. These areas of Antarctica are entirely snow free. Whaling and sealing are also huge threats to the Antarctic ecosystem, and even past The International Whaling Commission (IWC) was set up under the International • CCAMLR are responsible for researching, monitoring and conservation of the southern
The winds of Antarctica are very strong, known as the katabics, or katabatic winds. These events are still having detrimental consequences to this day. Convention for the Regulation of Whaling in 1946. The IWC enforces regulations on its 89 ocean
are strongest in the steepest areas of Antarctica. Gales of 60-70mph are known to occur Whaling began back as far as the 18th century, and alothough there are currently bans member states; all regulations have influence over whaling in the southern ocean • They have created an ecosystem monitoring programme, which defects and records
around 40 days in the year. The highest wind speed ever recorded in Antarctica was on almost all whaling, whale populations still stay at reduced and endangered levels from (Antarctica). Roles of the IWC include: changes and analyses the effects of commercial fishing.
199mph. the damage previously done in the past. Whales are slow breeders, meaning the ecosystem • Setting ‘catch limits’ and other rules such as hunting restrictions to regulate how
has been damaged for the long term. many whales can be caught etc
• Working with the Scientific Committee in order to research and study whaling.
• Co-ordinating conservation work through yearly meetings and other means.
• Providing funds for research and conservation.
Some examples of the work thw IWC has done: The influence the NGO’s on Antarctic Governance
• Introducing a Whaling Moratorium in 1982, bannning all commercial whaling on all
species and all populations until further notice. Norway and Iceland still commercially ASOC was formed in 1978 after concerns over secret negotiations between parties of the
Antarctic treaty. Some parties were secretly negotiating a framework for mineral and gas
whale which has been agreed by the IWC, and the Russian Federation objected to the
prospecting in Antarctic which would obviously have detrimental Enviornmental effects on
moratorium, but have not exercised the objection.
the continent.
As Antarctica is in the southern hemisphere, its winter occurs during our summers (March to • The IWC’s Scientific Comittee created a system called the Revised Managament
Mineral and reasouce exploitation Originally ASOC’s purpose was to convince governments to prevent this mineral
October). As Antarctica is also at the bottom of the earth, 6 months of the year is dark, 6 Procedure which estimates sustainable catch limits using past and present research,
All mining is banned in Antarctica, and any mineral/fossil fuel exploitation would be extremely exploitation, as well as allowing NGO’s to participate in the governance of Antarctica. ASOC
months of the year is constant sunlight (south pole). and complex algorithms.
difficult due to Antarcticas location and thick ice. However, fossil fuel crisis looming within the did this by bringing these secret negotiations into the public eye.
Due to the cold harsh conditions the ecosystem is not very biodiverse. Only hardy plants such as • In 1994, a southern ocean whale sanctuary was set up, banning all commercial
century, the demand for more reasources may lead to the exploitation being possible. The ASOC was granted observer status in 1991, meaning the organisation can go to annual
mosses and lichen grow, and there are hardly any land animals (only insects). The southern whaling in the area. Sanctuaries focus on the protection of calves and females. meetings for the Antarctic treaty system. ASOC presents a stone voice for the NGO’s as
ocean, though, has a diverse marine life with lost of fish, krill, penguins, seals and whales exploitation of minerals and reasources poses major threats to the habitat.
• Enforcement of the international observer scheme, which allows counties to observe well as conducts campaigns and projects to ensure Antarctica is protected.
• Oil exploration disrupts the habitat through the infrastructure that comes with it e.g.
other countries land based whaling stations to make sure they are complying with
drilling and pipelines.
IWC regulations. ASOC’s main focuses:
• Oil spills also cause catasrophic damage to Antarctica, as the fragile ecosystem cannot • Overall environmental protection in Antarctica
remove the oil quickly, causing long term damage. • Monitoring and extending marine protected areas
There are several criticisms of thw IWC, as well as incidences in which the IWC’s potential
• Metal and mineral exploitation damages the enviornment through mining and quarrying, • Wildlife conservation
lack of authority has been shown:
scaring away wildlife and causing damage beyond repair. Currently, Antarctica is • Krill conservation
• Member states chose freely to be in the IWC, and they can also opt out. The IWX can
protected from this exploitation, but this might not stay in the future. • Climate change and the antartic
enforce no penalties for members leaving, such as when Japan made the decision to
• The use of fossil fuels also contributes to global warming, further affecting • Antartic governance
leave in 2018.
Antarctica’s ecosystem.
• Countries can object/not abide by thw IWC’s regulations, such as Norway and
Tourism and scientific research Iceland who still take whales commercially (although the IWC somewhat regulates this
Natural reasources
Tourism in Antarctica is growing industry due to the demand for ‘extreme tourism’. Over by recieveing information on all catches and any scientific data collected)
Including the marine life, Antarctica is rich in natural reasources like fossil fuels and minerals.
37,000 visited Antarctica in ther seasons of 2009-2010, the majority of these on cruises. • Countries can exploit loopholes in regulations, which has led to the IWC to be
Large reserves of oil are located in the southern ocean, and iron ore deposits are rich in the
Tourists are more frequently travelling to Antarctica by air and seas, which threatens criticised regarding how constructive its regulations are. For example, until recently
transantartic mountains.
Antarctica directly though ther effects of ships and through fossil fuels emissions. Sea ice Japan exploited a loophole that allowed the country to commercially whale in
Antarctic waters for ‘scientific research’ purposes, although this was widely Charities
destruction and cruise ship crashes are major contributors to Enviornmental destruction as
Vulnerable as a global common
tourist numbers increase. For example, the MS explorer crash in 2007 left a mile long diesel doubted as research. Japan has now left the IWC, meaning whaling in the Southern
Due to the environment and the resources in Antarctica, the idea of this hub of reasources Such as greenpeace and WWF work to enhance the protection of Antarctica by:
spill, which disrupted penguin breeding grounds. Ocean would be in direct defiance of international conservation law.
being a ‘common’ for all makes it vulnerable. This is especially true due to the demand in • Collecting data and information independently of governments, to monitor the
Tourists in Antarctica may disrupt the ecosystem by trampling plants and scaring wildlife reliability and accuracy of other data
reasources such as fossil fuels, minerals and fish.
away. Amy litter dropped will stay in the nutrient cycle for a long time, as decomposition is • Reporting on issues, and releasing findings to the public governments. This can
The climate of Antarctica is also incredibly fragile, it is highly adapted to the extreme
slow. Any foreign objects bought ion by tourist may also enter and disrupt the food chain, spread awareness on issues and Antarctica and boost donations
environment, meaning a change in something like temperature could have many devastating
bringing a risk of invasive species with it. • Creating petitions, lobbying and campaigning for change. These petitions must be
knock-on effects to the ecosystem. Therefore, Antarctica is even more vulnerable to climate
The Antarctic Treaty System discussed by governments once they have reached a certain number of signatures
change, meaning the shared responsibility of Antarctica must consider the world’s emissions
Scientific research in the Antarctic is very important, as a lot of Enviornmental data is The Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) is a collection of agreements that work to protect the
and contributions to global warming.
collected here. With scientific research, though, brings scientific equipment and facilities. Antarctic through global governance. The Antarctic treaty originally operated without
The major threats to Antarctica are: Reaearch bases have been constructed around the Antarctic which have changed the any insititution, but in 2004 the Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty was established.
• Climate change natural enviornemnt and if not handled properly, may threaten to disrupt it. For example, Here are two of the main agreements summarised, including the original treaty:
• Fishing and whaling dogs such as huskies used to an integral part of assisting with scientific research. These
• Mineral/reasouce exploitation were sometimes fed seals and penguins when there was no food available and also brought the The Antarctic Treaty (1959)
• Tourism and scientific research threat of infecting seals. Dogs have now been permenantly removed from the continent, but • 53 parties (countries) to the treaty
Climate change this is just one example of how scientific research must be sustainably managed or it • Treaty states Antarctica’s should only be used for peaceful means
Due to the Antarctic being a fragile cold enviornment, a change to the temperature will threatens the Antarctic. • Antarctica can be used for scientific research, but all research has a right to be
obviously have devastating effects. shared and cooperated on
The governance of Antarctica
• Warmer sea and atmospheric temperatures melt ice sheets, causing huge ice bergs to • All stations and operations can be inspected at any time
It is threatened by a range of issues, and its status as a global common may enhance its
• Antarctica is not any country’s territory, it is a global common
r
calve into the sea. Melting ice sheets also cause sea levels to rise, which causes global vulnerability. Therefore, Antarctica is governed by global institutions that ensure is is
Antarctica
「
flooding. • Nuclear activity is banned
sustainably managed as a global common.
• Animals and plants are affected by changes in temperatures as they are highly adapted Issues and criticisms
to the Cole enviornemnt. Invasive species that are adapted to higher temperatures could • The treaty is not mandatory, meaning countries can choose to sign it
grow and colonise the enviornment. Migration patterns of certain animals have also been • Inspections do not often occur
disrupted by higher temperatures and some species have even declined due to warmer • All decisions must be unanimous. If any country does not ratify a modification/
temperatures. This also affects the Antarctic food chain. amendment to the treaty within 2 years, it cannot go forward.
of 14 million km2. The majority of Antarctica is covered in ice, making it the largest ice temperatures to rise more, enhancing global warming on the Antarctic. The UN has the potential to lead an important role in protecting the Antarctic, as it has the • Bans all activities relating to mineral reasources, aside from for scientific
sheet in the world- it holds 90% of the earths surface freshwater. • The albedo effect (process of white surfaces reflecting solar radiation back into the ability to set global laws and regulations in order to protect the Antarctic. However, for purposes. This means there can be no mining or fuel extraction on the continent.
atmosphere) is lessened due to less ice sheets, meaning more heat is absorbed back deceased the un has noticeably had little to do with the protection of the Antarctic. • Established the Committee for environmental protection, an advisory that provides
Climate and enviornment
into oceans. This has caused a rise in ocean temperatures, enhancing the advice and reccommendations to members.
• Entirely unique, and is one of the most extreme environments on the planet.
devastating effects. The main UN organisation associated with Antarctic protection is the UN Environment • Created and added to regulations that were out out in the original treaty,
• The coldest place on earth, temperatures averaging -40c (-39c average at the
Programme (UNEP). However, this organisation has had little influence on the Antarctic including additions to waste manegament and marine pollution.
South Pole, alothough coastal areas are warmer). Fishing and whaling specifically. The UNEP has attended ATS meetings and contributed to some reports, but its
• One of the driest places on earth. Coastal areas of Antarctica receive the most Antarctica is under threat from unsustainavle fishing, which disrupts the food chain of legislation and goals do not cover the Antarctic. The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Reasources is a treaty
prepcipation, averaging 400-600mm+ a year. the fragile enviornment. Overfishing removes vital animals in the already small food chain, Although the UNEP does not work to protect the Antarctic directly, their work indirectly created in 1980 to protect marine life populations, especially krill.
• Inland however, there is barely any precipitation and some places average under such as overfishing of krill which removes other marine animal food sources. Krill is the contributes to the governance to Antarctica. The UNEP’s legislation and research into • Within the convection, the Commission on the conservation of Antarctic marine living
50mm precipitation a year. The UK’s average rainfall is 5 times larger, yet most fished marine animal, with 150-200,000 tonnes fished annually, and the majority of global Enviornemntal problems, such as ozone depletion and global warming, work to protect reasoucres was established, who meet annually to discuss the management of fisheries
Antarctica is 58 times bigger. this being Antarctic krill. Despite regulations, there are still reports of illegal, unreported Antarctica from the effects of these issues. and other issues.
Antarctica is so dry it is considered to be a desert, making it scientifically the largest and unregulated fishing. This fishing is unsustainable and causes wide scale marine • Within the commission is the scientific committee who provide advice and scientific
desert in the world. The McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica are though to have not seen habitat damage. International Whaling commission
information.
rain in nearly 2 million years. These areas of Antarctica are entirely snow free. Whaling and sealing are also huge threats to the Antarctic ecosystem, and even past The International Whaling Commission (IWC) was set up under the International • CCAMLR are responsible for researching, monitoring and conservation of the southern
The winds of Antarctica are very strong, known as the katabics, or katabatic winds. These events are still having detrimental consequences to this day. Convention for the Regulation of Whaling in 1946. The IWC enforces regulations on its 89 ocean
are strongest in the steepest areas of Antarctica. Gales of 60-70mph are known to occur Whaling began back as far as the 18th century, and alothough there are currently bans member states; all regulations have influence over whaling in the southern ocean • They have created an ecosystem monitoring programme, which defects and records
around 40 days in the year. The highest wind speed ever recorded in Antarctica was on almost all whaling, whale populations still stay at reduced and endangered levels from (Antarctica). Roles of the IWC include: changes and analyses the effects of commercial fishing.
199mph. the damage previously done in the past. Whales are slow breeders, meaning the ecosystem • Setting ‘catch limits’ and other rules such as hunting restrictions to regulate how
has been damaged for the long term. many whales can be caught etc
• Working with the Scientific Committee in order to research and study whaling.
• Co-ordinating conservation work through yearly meetings and other means.
• Providing funds for research and conservation.
Some examples of the work thw IWC has done: The influence the NGO’s on Antarctic Governance
• Introducing a Whaling Moratorium in 1982, bannning all commercial whaling on all
species and all populations until further notice. Norway and Iceland still commercially ASOC was formed in 1978 after concerns over secret negotiations between parties of the
Antarctic treaty. Some parties were secretly negotiating a framework for mineral and gas
whale which has been agreed by the IWC, and the Russian Federation objected to the
prospecting in Antarctic which would obviously have detrimental Enviornmental effects on
moratorium, but have not exercised the objection.
the continent.
As Antarctica is in the southern hemisphere, its winter occurs during our summers (March to • The IWC’s Scientific Comittee created a system called the Revised Managament
Mineral and reasouce exploitation Originally ASOC’s purpose was to convince governments to prevent this mineral
October). As Antarctica is also at the bottom of the earth, 6 months of the year is dark, 6 Procedure which estimates sustainable catch limits using past and present research,
All mining is banned in Antarctica, and any mineral/fossil fuel exploitation would be extremely exploitation, as well as allowing NGO’s to participate in the governance of Antarctica. ASOC
months of the year is constant sunlight (south pole). and complex algorithms.
difficult due to Antarcticas location and thick ice. However, fossil fuel crisis looming within the did this by bringing these secret negotiations into the public eye.
Due to the cold harsh conditions the ecosystem is not very biodiverse. Only hardy plants such as • In 1994, a southern ocean whale sanctuary was set up, banning all commercial
century, the demand for more reasources may lead to the exploitation being possible. The ASOC was granted observer status in 1991, meaning the organisation can go to annual
mosses and lichen grow, and there are hardly any land animals (only insects). The southern whaling in the area. Sanctuaries focus on the protection of calves and females. meetings for the Antarctic treaty system. ASOC presents a stone voice for the NGO’s as
ocean, though, has a diverse marine life with lost of fish, krill, penguins, seals and whales exploitation of minerals and reasources poses major threats to the habitat.
• Enforcement of the international observer scheme, which allows counties to observe well as conducts campaigns and projects to ensure Antarctica is protected.
• Oil exploration disrupts the habitat through the infrastructure that comes with it e.g.
other countries land based whaling stations to make sure they are complying with
drilling and pipelines.
IWC regulations. ASOC’s main focuses:
• Oil spills also cause catasrophic damage to Antarctica, as the fragile ecosystem cannot • Overall environmental protection in Antarctica
remove the oil quickly, causing long term damage. • Monitoring and extending marine protected areas
There are several criticisms of thw IWC, as well as incidences in which the IWC’s potential
• Metal and mineral exploitation damages the enviornment through mining and quarrying, • Wildlife conservation
lack of authority has been shown:
scaring away wildlife and causing damage beyond repair. Currently, Antarctica is • Krill conservation
• Member states chose freely to be in the IWC, and they can also opt out. The IWX can
protected from this exploitation, but this might not stay in the future. • Climate change and the antartic
enforce no penalties for members leaving, such as when Japan made the decision to
• The use of fossil fuels also contributes to global warming, further affecting • Antartic governance
leave in 2018.
Antarctica’s ecosystem.
• Countries can object/not abide by thw IWC’s regulations, such as Norway and
Tourism and scientific research Iceland who still take whales commercially (although the IWC somewhat regulates this
Natural reasources
Tourism in Antarctica is growing industry due to the demand for ‘extreme tourism’. Over by recieveing information on all catches and any scientific data collected)
Including the marine life, Antarctica is rich in natural reasources like fossil fuels and minerals.
37,000 visited Antarctica in ther seasons of 2009-2010, the majority of these on cruises. • Countries can exploit loopholes in regulations, which has led to the IWC to be
Large reserves of oil are located in the southern ocean, and iron ore deposits are rich in the
Tourists are more frequently travelling to Antarctica by air and seas, which threatens criticised regarding how constructive its regulations are. For example, until recently
transantartic mountains.
Antarctica directly though ther effects of ships and through fossil fuels emissions. Sea ice Japan exploited a loophole that allowed the country to commercially whale in
Antarctic waters for ‘scientific research’ purposes, although this was widely Charities
destruction and cruise ship crashes are major contributors to Enviornmental destruction as
Vulnerable as a global common
tourist numbers increase. For example, the MS explorer crash in 2007 left a mile long diesel doubted as research. Japan has now left the IWC, meaning whaling in the Southern
Due to the environment and the resources in Antarctica, the idea of this hub of reasources Such as greenpeace and WWF work to enhance the protection of Antarctica by:
spill, which disrupted penguin breeding grounds. Ocean would be in direct defiance of international conservation law.
being a ‘common’ for all makes it vulnerable. This is especially true due to the demand in • Collecting data and information independently of governments, to monitor the
Tourists in Antarctica may disrupt the ecosystem by trampling plants and scaring wildlife reliability and accuracy of other data
reasources such as fossil fuels, minerals and fish.
away. Amy litter dropped will stay in the nutrient cycle for a long time, as decomposition is • Reporting on issues, and releasing findings to the public governments. This can
The climate of Antarctica is also incredibly fragile, it is highly adapted to the extreme
slow. Any foreign objects bought ion by tourist may also enter and disrupt the food chain, spread awareness on issues and Antarctica and boost donations
environment, meaning a change in something like temperature could have many devastating
bringing a risk of invasive species with it. • Creating petitions, lobbying and campaigning for change. These petitions must be
knock-on effects to the ecosystem. Therefore, Antarctica is even more vulnerable to climate
The Antarctic Treaty System discussed by governments once they have reached a certain number of signatures
change, meaning the shared responsibility of Antarctica must consider the world’s emissions
Scientific research in the Antarctic is very important, as a lot of Enviornmental data is The Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) is a collection of agreements that work to protect the
and contributions to global warming.
collected here. With scientific research, though, brings scientific equipment and facilities. Antarctic through global governance. The Antarctic treaty originally operated without
The major threats to Antarctica are: Reaearch bases have been constructed around the Antarctic which have changed the any insititution, but in 2004 the Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty was established.
• Climate change natural enviornemnt and if not handled properly, may threaten to disrupt it. For example, Here are two of the main agreements summarised, including the original treaty:
• Fishing and whaling dogs such as huskies used to an integral part of assisting with scientific research. These
• Mineral/reasouce exploitation were sometimes fed seals and penguins when there was no food available and also brought the The Antarctic Treaty (1959)
• Tourism and scientific research threat of infecting seals. Dogs have now been permenantly removed from the continent, but • 53 parties (countries) to the treaty
Climate change this is just one example of how scientific research must be sustainably managed or it • Treaty states Antarctica’s should only be used for peaceful means
Due to the Antarctic being a fragile cold enviornment, a change to the temperature will threatens the Antarctic. • Antarctica can be used for scientific research, but all research has a right to be
obviously have devastating effects. shared and cooperated on
The governance of Antarctica
• Warmer sea and atmospheric temperatures melt ice sheets, causing huge ice bergs to • All stations and operations can be inspected at any time
It is threatened by a range of issues, and its status as a global common may enhance its
• Antarctica is not any country’s territory, it is a global common
r
calve into the sea. Melting ice sheets also cause sea levels to rise, which causes global vulnerability. Therefore, Antarctica is governed by global institutions that ensure is is
Antarctica
「
flooding. • Nuclear activity is banned
sustainably managed as a global common.
• Animals and plants are affected by changes in temperatures as they are highly adapted Issues and criticisms
to the Cole enviornemnt. Invasive species that are adapted to higher temperatures could • The treaty is not mandatory, meaning countries can choose to sign it
grow and colonise the enviornment. Migration patterns of certain animals have also been • Inspections do not often occur
disrupted by higher temperatures and some species have even declined due to warmer • All decisions must be unanimous. If any country does not ratify a modification/
temperatures. This also affects the Antarctic food chain. amendment to the treaty within 2 years, it cannot go forward.
