Introduction to psychology
Inhoud
Introduction to psychology..................................................................................... 1
Chapter 13.......................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 15.......................................................................................................... 6
Chapter 9.......................................................................................................... 10
Chapter 12........................................................................................................ 12
Chapter 11........................................................................................................ 17
Chapter 13
13.1 Theories of personality
Define personality and identify several traditional perspectives.
Personality; the unique and relatively stable ways in which people think, feel, and behave. Character;
value judgments of a person’s moral and ethical behavior.
Perspectives:
- Psychodynamic perspective (Freud): role of unconscious mind in the development of
personality. Also the biological causes of personality differences.
- Behavioral perspective; effects of the environment on behavior, includes social cognitive
theory that interactions with others and personal thought processes also influence learning and
personality.
- Humanistic perspective: against psychoanalytic and behaviorists perspective, focus on
person’s conscious life experiences and choices in personality development.
- Trait perspective; focus on characteristics instead of explaining the processes.
13.2-13.5 psychodynamic perspective
13.2 Explain how the mind and personality are structured, according to Freud.
The structure of the mind: (Divided 3 parts; preconscious, conscious and unconscious). Unconscious;
Freud theorized that there is a part of the mind that remains hidden at all times, surfacing only in
symbolic form in dreams and in some of the behavior people engage in without knowing why they
have done so.
Freud’s divisions of personality: personality could be divided into 3 parts each existing at one or more
levels of conscious awareness. The way they interacted became the heart of Freud’s theory. Freud
called this need for satisfaction the pleasure principle, which can be defined as the desire for
immediate gratification of needs with no regard for the consequences. The pleasure principle can be
summed up simply as “if it feels good, do it.”
- Id; part of the personality present at birth and completely unconscious.
- Ego; the executive director, part of the personality that develops out of a need to deal with
reality; mostly conscious, rational, and logical.
- Superego; part of the personality that acts as a moral center.
(The angle, the devil and me.)
pleasure principle; principle by which the id functions; the desire for the immediate satisfaction of
needs without regard for the consequences.
,reality principle; principle by which the ego functions; the satisfaction of the demands of the id only
when negative consequences will not result.
psychological defense mechanisms unconscious distortions of a person’s perception of reality that
reduce stress and anxiety.
13.3 Distinguish among the five psychosexual stages of personality development.
psychosexual stages; five stages of personality development proposed by Freud and tied to the sexual
development of the child.
Fixation; disorder in which the person does not fully resolve the conflict in a particular psychosexual
stage, resulting in personality traits and behavior associated with that earlier stage
Defense mechanisms and definitions:
- Denial: refusal to recognize or acknowledge a threatening situation.
- repression: “pushing” threatening or conflicting events or situations out of conscious memory.
- rationalization: making up acceptable excuses for unacceptable behavior.
- Projection: placing one’s own unacceptable thoughts onto others, as if the thoughts belonged
to them and not to oneself.
- reaction formation: forming an emotional reaction or attitude that is the opposite of one’s
threatening or unacceptable actual thoughts.
- Displacement: expressing feelings that would be threatening if directed at the real target onto a
less threatening substitute target.
- regression: falling back on childlike patterns as a way of coping with stressful situations.
- Identification: trying to become like someone else to deal with one’s anxiety.
- Compensation (substitution): trying to make up for areas in which a deficit is perceived by
becoming superior in some other area.
- Sublimation: turning socially unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behavior.
The child may grow into an adult but will still carry emotional and psychological “baggage” from that
earlier fixated stage.
- Oral stage(18 months): Weaning that occurs too soon or too late can result in too little or too
much satisfaction of the child’s oral needs, resulting in the activities and personality traits
associated with an orally fixated adult personality: overeating, drinking too much, chain
smoking, talking too much, nail biting, gum chewing, and a tendency to be either too
dependent and optimistic (when the oral needs are overindulged) or too aggressive and
pessimistic (when the oral needs are denied).
- Anal stage (18 to 36 months): erogenous zone mouth -> anus. Freud also believed that
children got a great deal of pleasure from both withholding and releasing their feces at will.
Anal expulsive personality; child rebels, adult hostile. Anal retentive personality; child
terrified of making a mess, adult stubborn and neat.
- Phallic stage ( 3 to 6 years): This awakening of sexual curiosity and interest in the genitals is
the beginning of what Freud termed the phallic stage. Freud essentially believed boys develop
both sexual attraction to their mothers and jealousy of their fathers during this stage, a
phenomenon called the Oedipus complex. Girls go through a similar process called the
Electra complex with their father as the target of their affections and their mother as the rival.
- Latency stage (6 years to puberty); remember, by the end of the phallic stage, children have
pushed their sexual feelings for the opposite sex into the unconscious in another defensive
reaction: repression. From age 6 to the onset of puberty, children will remain in this stage of
hidden, or latent, sexual feelings, so this stage is called latency.
- Genital stage (puberty on); sexual urges go from unconscious to conscious mind. Freud ties
personality development to sexual development.
, 13.4 Describe how the neo-Freudians modified Freud’s theory.
Psychoanalysis; an insight therapy based on the theory of Freud, emphasizing the revealing of
unconscious conflicts; Freud’s term for both the theory of personality and the therapy based on it.
Neo-freudians:
- JUNG: believed the unconscious held much more than personal fears, urges, and memories,
not only personal unconscious but a collective unconscious.
- ADLER: disagreed over the importance of sexuality in personality development. Developed
child-birth-order theory,
- HORNEY: instead of sexuality focused on basic anxiety(; anxiety created when a child is
born into the bigger and more powerful world of older children and adults). This anxiety,
others with less secure upbringing would develop neurotic personalities(; personalities typified
by maladaptive ways of dealing with relationships in Horney’s theory).
- ERIKSON: He also broke away from Freud’s emphasis on sex, preferring instead to
emphasize the social relation ships that are important at every stage of life. 8 psychosocial
stages (chapter 8).
13.5 Evaluate the influence of Freudian theory on modern personality theories.
despite several criticisms, Freud’s theory still important—first to suggest that personality develops
through stages, that we are not always consciously aware of reasons for behavior, and that early life
experiences influence who we are later in life.
13.6-13.7 the behavioral and social cognitive view on personality
13.6 Compare and contrast the learning theories of Bandura and Rotter.
Habits; in behaviorism, sets of well-learned responses that have become automatic.
social cognitive learning theorists; theorists who emphasize the importance of both the influences of
other people’s behavior and of a person’s own expectancies on learning.
social cognitive view; learning theory that includes cognitive processes such as anticipating, judging,
memory, and imitation of models.
reciprocal determinism; Bandura’s explanation of how the factors of environment, personal
characteristics, and behavior can interact to determine future behavior.
Inhoud
Introduction to psychology..................................................................................... 1
Chapter 13.......................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 15.......................................................................................................... 6
Chapter 9.......................................................................................................... 10
Chapter 12........................................................................................................ 12
Chapter 11........................................................................................................ 17
Chapter 13
13.1 Theories of personality
Define personality and identify several traditional perspectives.
Personality; the unique and relatively stable ways in which people think, feel, and behave. Character;
value judgments of a person’s moral and ethical behavior.
Perspectives:
- Psychodynamic perspective (Freud): role of unconscious mind in the development of
personality. Also the biological causes of personality differences.
- Behavioral perspective; effects of the environment on behavior, includes social cognitive
theory that interactions with others and personal thought processes also influence learning and
personality.
- Humanistic perspective: against psychoanalytic and behaviorists perspective, focus on
person’s conscious life experiences and choices in personality development.
- Trait perspective; focus on characteristics instead of explaining the processes.
13.2-13.5 psychodynamic perspective
13.2 Explain how the mind and personality are structured, according to Freud.
The structure of the mind: (Divided 3 parts; preconscious, conscious and unconscious). Unconscious;
Freud theorized that there is a part of the mind that remains hidden at all times, surfacing only in
symbolic form in dreams and in some of the behavior people engage in without knowing why they
have done so.
Freud’s divisions of personality: personality could be divided into 3 parts each existing at one or more
levels of conscious awareness. The way they interacted became the heart of Freud’s theory. Freud
called this need for satisfaction the pleasure principle, which can be defined as the desire for
immediate gratification of needs with no regard for the consequences. The pleasure principle can be
summed up simply as “if it feels good, do it.”
- Id; part of the personality present at birth and completely unconscious.
- Ego; the executive director, part of the personality that develops out of a need to deal with
reality; mostly conscious, rational, and logical.
- Superego; part of the personality that acts as a moral center.
(The angle, the devil and me.)
pleasure principle; principle by which the id functions; the desire for the immediate satisfaction of
needs without regard for the consequences.
,reality principle; principle by which the ego functions; the satisfaction of the demands of the id only
when negative consequences will not result.
psychological defense mechanisms unconscious distortions of a person’s perception of reality that
reduce stress and anxiety.
13.3 Distinguish among the five psychosexual stages of personality development.
psychosexual stages; five stages of personality development proposed by Freud and tied to the sexual
development of the child.
Fixation; disorder in which the person does not fully resolve the conflict in a particular psychosexual
stage, resulting in personality traits and behavior associated with that earlier stage
Defense mechanisms and definitions:
- Denial: refusal to recognize or acknowledge a threatening situation.
- repression: “pushing” threatening or conflicting events or situations out of conscious memory.
- rationalization: making up acceptable excuses for unacceptable behavior.
- Projection: placing one’s own unacceptable thoughts onto others, as if the thoughts belonged
to them and not to oneself.
- reaction formation: forming an emotional reaction or attitude that is the opposite of one’s
threatening or unacceptable actual thoughts.
- Displacement: expressing feelings that would be threatening if directed at the real target onto a
less threatening substitute target.
- regression: falling back on childlike patterns as a way of coping with stressful situations.
- Identification: trying to become like someone else to deal with one’s anxiety.
- Compensation (substitution): trying to make up for areas in which a deficit is perceived by
becoming superior in some other area.
- Sublimation: turning socially unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behavior.
The child may grow into an adult but will still carry emotional and psychological “baggage” from that
earlier fixated stage.
- Oral stage(18 months): Weaning that occurs too soon or too late can result in too little or too
much satisfaction of the child’s oral needs, resulting in the activities and personality traits
associated with an orally fixated adult personality: overeating, drinking too much, chain
smoking, talking too much, nail biting, gum chewing, and a tendency to be either too
dependent and optimistic (when the oral needs are overindulged) or too aggressive and
pessimistic (when the oral needs are denied).
- Anal stage (18 to 36 months): erogenous zone mouth -> anus. Freud also believed that
children got a great deal of pleasure from both withholding and releasing their feces at will.
Anal expulsive personality; child rebels, adult hostile. Anal retentive personality; child
terrified of making a mess, adult stubborn and neat.
- Phallic stage ( 3 to 6 years): This awakening of sexual curiosity and interest in the genitals is
the beginning of what Freud termed the phallic stage. Freud essentially believed boys develop
both sexual attraction to their mothers and jealousy of their fathers during this stage, a
phenomenon called the Oedipus complex. Girls go through a similar process called the
Electra complex with their father as the target of their affections and their mother as the rival.
- Latency stage (6 years to puberty); remember, by the end of the phallic stage, children have
pushed their sexual feelings for the opposite sex into the unconscious in another defensive
reaction: repression. From age 6 to the onset of puberty, children will remain in this stage of
hidden, or latent, sexual feelings, so this stage is called latency.
- Genital stage (puberty on); sexual urges go from unconscious to conscious mind. Freud ties
personality development to sexual development.
, 13.4 Describe how the neo-Freudians modified Freud’s theory.
Psychoanalysis; an insight therapy based on the theory of Freud, emphasizing the revealing of
unconscious conflicts; Freud’s term for both the theory of personality and the therapy based on it.
Neo-freudians:
- JUNG: believed the unconscious held much more than personal fears, urges, and memories,
not only personal unconscious but a collective unconscious.
- ADLER: disagreed over the importance of sexuality in personality development. Developed
child-birth-order theory,
- HORNEY: instead of sexuality focused on basic anxiety(; anxiety created when a child is
born into the bigger and more powerful world of older children and adults). This anxiety,
others with less secure upbringing would develop neurotic personalities(; personalities typified
by maladaptive ways of dealing with relationships in Horney’s theory).
- ERIKSON: He also broke away from Freud’s emphasis on sex, preferring instead to
emphasize the social relation ships that are important at every stage of life. 8 psychosocial
stages (chapter 8).
13.5 Evaluate the influence of Freudian theory on modern personality theories.
despite several criticisms, Freud’s theory still important—first to suggest that personality develops
through stages, that we are not always consciously aware of reasons for behavior, and that early life
experiences influence who we are later in life.
13.6-13.7 the behavioral and social cognitive view on personality
13.6 Compare and contrast the learning theories of Bandura and Rotter.
Habits; in behaviorism, sets of well-learned responses that have become automatic.
social cognitive learning theorists; theorists who emphasize the importance of both the influences of
other people’s behavior and of a person’s own expectancies on learning.
social cognitive view; learning theory that includes cognitive processes such as anticipating, judging,
memory, and imitation of models.
reciprocal determinism; Bandura’s explanation of how the factors of environment, personal
characteristics, and behavior can interact to determine future behavior.
