Master Psych Notes
Socio Cultural:
Topics: B C D
- Proposed by Tajfel essay. 1979 - to see how one's social identity may affect behaviour. To investigate if - Ecological validity because the study was a lab experiment with an
/[]\Social - Social categorization where individuals are categorized into intergroup discrimination would take place based on being put into artificial task assigned → high degree of controlled variables.
identity theory groups based on the behaviors or stereotypes they are different groups. - Hard to happen IRL → ppl behave diff to group pressure.
- A sample of 48 boys was randomly divided into three groups. The boys - Issues with Reductionism → complex psychology phenomenon turned
perceived with.
were 14 - 15 years old. into simple tasks → Tajfel focused on minimal groups.
- social identification is when individuals adopt the identity of - The boys were asked to rate 12 paintings by the abstract expressionist
the group such as the group’s values and behaviors for a painters Paul Klee and Wassily Kandinsky. They were not aware of which
sense of belonging to the groups. artist painted which painting during the test. The boys were then randomly
- social comparison is when individuals compare their allocated to groups and then told that they had preferred either Klee or
intergroup to the out-group in order to seek benefits from it. Kandinsky.
- Positive distinctiveness is when the individuals in the - Each boy was then given the task to award points to two other boys, one
from his same group and one from the other group. There were two
in-groups are distinguishing positive attributes of their
systems of awarding points employed by the researchers.
groups that lead to show their groups are better and more - Point systems (we all know this right???)
preferable than out- groups in order to increase their - In-group favouritism was shown as boys awarded more points to in-group
self-esteem. Positive distinctiveness is also a motivation that than out-group for the first system. In the second system, boys were
leads to the social comparison. willing to give their own team fewer points in the goal of maximising the
difference. Surprising as the boys left the study with fewer points than if
they had all given each other the largest possible value of points.
- The natural tendency of members of a group to favour their in-group.
Despite seeming less grouping, participants were able to identify with their
respective groups and create a positive social identity.
suggests that behaviour is modelled by other members of a group and Bandura et al Strengths
[Social acquired through observation or imitation based on consequences of a
cognitive theory behaviour. Aim : (1) determine whether children would imitate aggression modeled by an High ecological validity
adult (2) see if children were more likely to imitate same-sex models. ● Conducted in a real-life setting
Observational Learning : people learn by watching models and
imitating their behavior Procedure Weaknesses
● Children aged 3 to 6 years were divided into groups
Vicarious reinforcement : the process of learning behaviors through ○ First group - exposed to adult models who showed aggression bashing or
observation of reward and punishment, rather than through direct using verbal aggression toward the Bobo doll Sample bias
experience. ○ Second group - observed a non-aggressive adult who assembled toys for
10 min Ethical consideration
Attention the learner must pay attention to the model. ○ Control group - did not see any model. ● Deception (social-desirability effect).
Factors influencing attention ● After watching the models, the children were placed in a room with toys + ● Covert observation, the participants were not aware that they were being
- attractiveness bobo doll observed.
- authority
- desirability Findings * however, deception = a way of preventing external factors such as demand
, ● children who had observed the aggressive models were significantly more characteristics from hindering the results.
Retention The observer must be able to remember the behaviour in aggressive (physical + verbal)
order to produce the behaviour ● girls more likely to imitate verbal. Whereas boys = physical
● children were more likely to imitate the same-sex adult.
Motivation Learners must want to replicate the behaviour.
In order to do this, they must understand the potential outcome of the Conclusion + LTQ (Link to Question)
behaviour – outcome expectancies. children appeared to learn the behaviour by watching the models shows
Factors influencing motivation observational learning
- Consistency ● vicarious reinforcement as the models weren’t punished so the children
- Identification with model imitated them.
- Liking the model ● imitated the same gender shows self-efficacy as they see that if the models
can do it, they can do it.
Self-efficacy one's belief in one's ability to succeed ● reciprocal determinism children were influenced by the environment and
also influences the environment
reciprocal determinism individuals are influenced by the
environment but also influence the environment. Charlton - St Helena’s
Television was first introduced in St Helena in 1995.
Aim : Investigate effect of the introduction of television to aggression in children
Procedure
● Have violent content shown on TV that was equal to UK
● Cameras set up in playground of two primary schools to observe behaviour
○ Children age 3-5 years
Findings/Results
● After 5 years, aggression in children did not increase.
● Good behaviour prior to the introduction of television was maintained
Conclusion + LTQ (Link to Question)
● This study demonstrated that social learning can also include other
components.
○ Part of the cognitive factors must be fulfilled.
● Social and cultural factors can play a role in what behaviours are
acceptable.
○ Might have learned but did not show
* Television does not have a significant impact on children’s behaviour
- High level of community control and parents control over behaviour (cuz
on island)
Formation of stereotype
Stereotypes Hamilton and Gifford
Stereotype : generalisations made from experiences with an
individual or a group which is then attributed to all members of the Aim : investigate illusory correlation based on group size and negative behaviour
group
Procedure
Illusory correlation : a cognitive mechanism is when people ● Sample - undergraduates
perceive a correlation between two variables when no actual ● read a series of sentences describing desirable and undesirable behaviour
relationship between the variables exists performed by member of groups A and B
● estimate how many members of each group performed desirable and
Grain of truth hypothesis : states that one experience with an undeniable behaviour.
individual causes that conclusion to be generalized to a group.
, ! stereotypes are no different from other schemas that we develop. Findings/Results
Come from biased and distorted representations of reality. ● most of the undeniable behaviour were attributed to the minority group B
than the majority of Group A
Effect of stereotype
Conclusion + LTQ (Link to Question)
Stereotype : generalisations made from experiences with an ● This study demonstrated that illusory correlation - no correlation
individual or a group which is then attributed to all members of the between group membership and the types of behaviour. the undesirable
group traits were attributed to the minority group.
○ due to a cognitive bias that makes each negative trait stand out
Stereotype threat when an individual feels threatened or expected to more.
behave a certain way because of the stereotype that was put on them ● grain of truth hypothesis participants may not remember all of the
● Spotlight Anxiety causes emotional distress and pressure negative traits by the minority group but automatically assigned to the rest
that may undermine performance of the group
● Reverse stereotype threat when individuals perform better
when a negative stereotype is put on them because it is used Aronson and Steele
as motivation for them.
Aim : investigate the effect of stereotype threat on performance in a test.
Procedure
● African-Amercian and American undergraduates.
● Were told that they were testing on their verbal abilities while on the other
hand were told it was to test their problem solving skills.
Findings/Results
● African-Americans performed significantly worse when told it was a test
on their verbal ability.
● However, for the group that was told they were tested on problem solving,
the African-Americans performed equally as well to the Americans.
Conclusion + LTQ (Link to Question)
● This study demonstrated that there is a stereotype threat and it can lead
to spotlight anxiety.
○ Stereotype that African- Americans are not as skilled in terms of
their verbal skill, therefore, conformed to the existing stereotype.
● However, when told it was for problem-solving, where there was no
stereotype surrounding these two groups, they performed equally as well
to each other.
Cultural norm -is a set of rules based on socially or culturally Kulkofsky et al. (2011)
Culture and shared beliefs of how an individual ought to behave to be accepted Aim:
cognition within that group. Norms regulate behaviour within a group. To investigate if there was a difference in rate of flashbulb memories in collectivist
and individualist cultures.
Culture - is a complex concept that is used in many different ways. Procedure
1. 274 adults from five different countries--China, Germany, Turkey, UK and
Surface culture is what we easily see as different when we have USA--were used.
contact with another group. We notice that their food is different, that 2. Participants had five minutes to think of as many memories as possible
men and women are separated at dinner or that the music uses a about public events in their lifetime.
different scale. 3. They were asked questions about the importance of the event including
how personally important it was, how surprised they were etc.
What interests psychologists more is what is known as deep culture. 4. All questionnaires were provided in the participant’s native language.
Deep culture is the beliefs, attitudes, and values of a group. These Findings/Results:
, may include a group’s perception of time, importance of personal ● In collectivist cultures like China, personal importance and emotions
space, respect for authority or the need to save money for the future. played less of a role in predicting flashbulb memories.
These cultural factors may lead to specific kinds of attitudes, beliefs ● In individualistic cultures, greater emphasis was placed on events of
and behaviour. personal involvement and emotional experiences.
● Events of national importance had no significant difference in creation of
Culture has many effects on our behaviour, our attitudes and our flashbulb memories.
cognitive processes. Culture plays a role in the creation of our Conclusion:
schema - and these, in turn, affect what we remember. However, it ● There is a difference in rate of flashbulb memories created in collectivist
also affects how we remember. The following chapter explores how and individualistic cultures.
culture affects the cognitive process of memory.
Cultural dimension: how the values of society affect behavior Berry (1967): - Will only be an SAQ
Cultural
Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions A:
dimension
1. Power distance index: extent to which a culture respects - measuring the level of conformity in these two types of societies by
authority and status applying a version of the Asch Paradigm
2. Individualism vs. collectivism: the degree to which
P:
people are integrated into groups. Sometimes referred to
as an “I” vs. a “we” orientation. - Berry used 3 distinctly different cultures for his sample, each group
contains traditional people who had never had a western education &
Characteristics of individualism and collectivism:
maintain traditional way of life which the transitional either have
Individualism: western education or employment.
- Uniqueness is valued.
Temne (society based on rice Traditional (90) and Transitional
- Speaking one's mind is important. farming): (32)
- Self is defined by individual achievement.
Inituits(survives by hunting and Traditional (91) and Transitional
Collectivism: fishing):
(31)
- Social harmony is valued. Scots:
Rural (62) and Urban (60)
- Modesty is important.
- Self is defined by group membership - 1st & 2nd trail: Test if the experimenters understand the directions
correctly
- 3rd trial, the examiners give the experimenters a hint. The examiners
picked a line and said that in their group, they picked that chosen line
as their answer.
F: The results showed that…
- No significant difference within group (transitional and traditional).
This means, theres no difference in conformity living or not living in a
western culture.
- Temme as a collectivistic culture have much higher rate of conformity
when told that other Temne believed, even though it was incorrect.
- Inuits on the other hand had even a lower rate of conformity than the
Scots
Socio Cultural:
Topics: B C D
- Proposed by Tajfel essay. 1979 - to see how one's social identity may affect behaviour. To investigate if - Ecological validity because the study was a lab experiment with an
/[]\Social - Social categorization where individuals are categorized into intergroup discrimination would take place based on being put into artificial task assigned → high degree of controlled variables.
identity theory groups based on the behaviors or stereotypes they are different groups. - Hard to happen IRL → ppl behave diff to group pressure.
- A sample of 48 boys was randomly divided into three groups. The boys - Issues with Reductionism → complex psychology phenomenon turned
perceived with.
were 14 - 15 years old. into simple tasks → Tajfel focused on minimal groups.
- social identification is when individuals adopt the identity of - The boys were asked to rate 12 paintings by the abstract expressionist
the group such as the group’s values and behaviors for a painters Paul Klee and Wassily Kandinsky. They were not aware of which
sense of belonging to the groups. artist painted which painting during the test. The boys were then randomly
- social comparison is when individuals compare their allocated to groups and then told that they had preferred either Klee or
intergroup to the out-group in order to seek benefits from it. Kandinsky.
- Positive distinctiveness is when the individuals in the - Each boy was then given the task to award points to two other boys, one
from his same group and one from the other group. There were two
in-groups are distinguishing positive attributes of their
systems of awarding points employed by the researchers.
groups that lead to show their groups are better and more - Point systems (we all know this right???)
preferable than out- groups in order to increase their - In-group favouritism was shown as boys awarded more points to in-group
self-esteem. Positive distinctiveness is also a motivation that than out-group for the first system. In the second system, boys were
leads to the social comparison. willing to give their own team fewer points in the goal of maximising the
difference. Surprising as the boys left the study with fewer points than if
they had all given each other the largest possible value of points.
- The natural tendency of members of a group to favour their in-group.
Despite seeming less grouping, participants were able to identify with their
respective groups and create a positive social identity.
suggests that behaviour is modelled by other members of a group and Bandura et al Strengths
[Social acquired through observation or imitation based on consequences of a
cognitive theory behaviour. Aim : (1) determine whether children would imitate aggression modeled by an High ecological validity
adult (2) see if children were more likely to imitate same-sex models. ● Conducted in a real-life setting
Observational Learning : people learn by watching models and
imitating their behavior Procedure Weaknesses
● Children aged 3 to 6 years were divided into groups
Vicarious reinforcement : the process of learning behaviors through ○ First group - exposed to adult models who showed aggression bashing or
observation of reward and punishment, rather than through direct using verbal aggression toward the Bobo doll Sample bias
experience. ○ Second group - observed a non-aggressive adult who assembled toys for
10 min Ethical consideration
Attention the learner must pay attention to the model. ○ Control group - did not see any model. ● Deception (social-desirability effect).
Factors influencing attention ● After watching the models, the children were placed in a room with toys + ● Covert observation, the participants were not aware that they were being
- attractiveness bobo doll observed.
- authority
- desirability Findings * however, deception = a way of preventing external factors such as demand
, ● children who had observed the aggressive models were significantly more characteristics from hindering the results.
Retention The observer must be able to remember the behaviour in aggressive (physical + verbal)
order to produce the behaviour ● girls more likely to imitate verbal. Whereas boys = physical
● children were more likely to imitate the same-sex adult.
Motivation Learners must want to replicate the behaviour.
In order to do this, they must understand the potential outcome of the Conclusion + LTQ (Link to Question)
behaviour – outcome expectancies. children appeared to learn the behaviour by watching the models shows
Factors influencing motivation observational learning
- Consistency ● vicarious reinforcement as the models weren’t punished so the children
- Identification with model imitated them.
- Liking the model ● imitated the same gender shows self-efficacy as they see that if the models
can do it, they can do it.
Self-efficacy one's belief in one's ability to succeed ● reciprocal determinism children were influenced by the environment and
also influences the environment
reciprocal determinism individuals are influenced by the
environment but also influence the environment. Charlton - St Helena’s
Television was first introduced in St Helena in 1995.
Aim : Investigate effect of the introduction of television to aggression in children
Procedure
● Have violent content shown on TV that was equal to UK
● Cameras set up in playground of two primary schools to observe behaviour
○ Children age 3-5 years
Findings/Results
● After 5 years, aggression in children did not increase.
● Good behaviour prior to the introduction of television was maintained
Conclusion + LTQ (Link to Question)
● This study demonstrated that social learning can also include other
components.
○ Part of the cognitive factors must be fulfilled.
● Social and cultural factors can play a role in what behaviours are
acceptable.
○ Might have learned but did not show
* Television does not have a significant impact on children’s behaviour
- High level of community control and parents control over behaviour (cuz
on island)
Formation of stereotype
Stereotypes Hamilton and Gifford
Stereotype : generalisations made from experiences with an
individual or a group which is then attributed to all members of the Aim : investigate illusory correlation based on group size and negative behaviour
group
Procedure
Illusory correlation : a cognitive mechanism is when people ● Sample - undergraduates
perceive a correlation between two variables when no actual ● read a series of sentences describing desirable and undesirable behaviour
relationship between the variables exists performed by member of groups A and B
● estimate how many members of each group performed desirable and
Grain of truth hypothesis : states that one experience with an undeniable behaviour.
individual causes that conclusion to be generalized to a group.
, ! stereotypes are no different from other schemas that we develop. Findings/Results
Come from biased and distorted representations of reality. ● most of the undeniable behaviour were attributed to the minority group B
than the majority of Group A
Effect of stereotype
Conclusion + LTQ (Link to Question)
Stereotype : generalisations made from experiences with an ● This study demonstrated that illusory correlation - no correlation
individual or a group which is then attributed to all members of the between group membership and the types of behaviour. the undesirable
group traits were attributed to the minority group.
○ due to a cognitive bias that makes each negative trait stand out
Stereotype threat when an individual feels threatened or expected to more.
behave a certain way because of the stereotype that was put on them ● grain of truth hypothesis participants may not remember all of the
● Spotlight Anxiety causes emotional distress and pressure negative traits by the minority group but automatically assigned to the rest
that may undermine performance of the group
● Reverse stereotype threat when individuals perform better
when a negative stereotype is put on them because it is used Aronson and Steele
as motivation for them.
Aim : investigate the effect of stereotype threat on performance in a test.
Procedure
● African-Amercian and American undergraduates.
● Were told that they were testing on their verbal abilities while on the other
hand were told it was to test their problem solving skills.
Findings/Results
● African-Americans performed significantly worse when told it was a test
on their verbal ability.
● However, for the group that was told they were tested on problem solving,
the African-Americans performed equally as well to the Americans.
Conclusion + LTQ (Link to Question)
● This study demonstrated that there is a stereotype threat and it can lead
to spotlight anxiety.
○ Stereotype that African- Americans are not as skilled in terms of
their verbal skill, therefore, conformed to the existing stereotype.
● However, when told it was for problem-solving, where there was no
stereotype surrounding these two groups, they performed equally as well
to each other.
Cultural norm -is a set of rules based on socially or culturally Kulkofsky et al. (2011)
Culture and shared beliefs of how an individual ought to behave to be accepted Aim:
cognition within that group. Norms regulate behaviour within a group. To investigate if there was a difference in rate of flashbulb memories in collectivist
and individualist cultures.
Culture - is a complex concept that is used in many different ways. Procedure
1. 274 adults from five different countries--China, Germany, Turkey, UK and
Surface culture is what we easily see as different when we have USA--were used.
contact with another group. We notice that their food is different, that 2. Participants had five minutes to think of as many memories as possible
men and women are separated at dinner or that the music uses a about public events in their lifetime.
different scale. 3. They were asked questions about the importance of the event including
how personally important it was, how surprised they were etc.
What interests psychologists more is what is known as deep culture. 4. All questionnaires were provided in the participant’s native language.
Deep culture is the beliefs, attitudes, and values of a group. These Findings/Results:
, may include a group’s perception of time, importance of personal ● In collectivist cultures like China, personal importance and emotions
space, respect for authority or the need to save money for the future. played less of a role in predicting flashbulb memories.
These cultural factors may lead to specific kinds of attitudes, beliefs ● In individualistic cultures, greater emphasis was placed on events of
and behaviour. personal involvement and emotional experiences.
● Events of national importance had no significant difference in creation of
Culture has many effects on our behaviour, our attitudes and our flashbulb memories.
cognitive processes. Culture plays a role in the creation of our Conclusion:
schema - and these, in turn, affect what we remember. However, it ● There is a difference in rate of flashbulb memories created in collectivist
also affects how we remember. The following chapter explores how and individualistic cultures.
culture affects the cognitive process of memory.
Cultural dimension: how the values of society affect behavior Berry (1967): - Will only be an SAQ
Cultural
Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions A:
dimension
1. Power distance index: extent to which a culture respects - measuring the level of conformity in these two types of societies by
authority and status applying a version of the Asch Paradigm
2. Individualism vs. collectivism: the degree to which
P:
people are integrated into groups. Sometimes referred to
as an “I” vs. a “we” orientation. - Berry used 3 distinctly different cultures for his sample, each group
contains traditional people who had never had a western education &
Characteristics of individualism and collectivism:
maintain traditional way of life which the transitional either have
Individualism: western education or employment.
- Uniqueness is valued.
Temne (society based on rice Traditional (90) and Transitional
- Speaking one's mind is important. farming): (32)
- Self is defined by individual achievement.
Inituits(survives by hunting and Traditional (91) and Transitional
Collectivism: fishing):
(31)
- Social harmony is valued. Scots:
Rural (62) and Urban (60)
- Modesty is important.
- Self is defined by group membership - 1st & 2nd trail: Test if the experimenters understand the directions
correctly
- 3rd trial, the examiners give the experimenters a hint. The examiners
picked a line and said that in their group, they picked that chosen line
as their answer.
F: The results showed that…
- No significant difference within group (transitional and traditional).
This means, theres no difference in conformity living or not living in a
western culture.
- Temme as a collectivistic culture have much higher rate of conformity
when told that other Temne believed, even though it was incorrect.
- Inuits on the other hand had even a lower rate of conformity than the
Scots
