PATHOPHYSIOLOGY INTRODUCTORY
CONCEPTS AND CLINICAL PERSPECTIVES
BUNDLED QUESTIONS 2026
◉ Alarm stage of GAS Answer: *Emergency Reaction: Fight or Flight
-Epinephrine and Norepinephrine are released causing sweat,
nausea, increased heart rate
◉ Resistance/adaptation stage Answer: *body attempts homeostasis
-Actions of adrenal hormones
-heart rate slows, nausea stops, sweat stops
◉ Exhaustion Stage/ allostatic overload Answer: *body can no
longer produce hormones
-Only occurs if stress continues and adaptation is not successful
-body's physiological and immune system no longer efficiently cope
with the stressor and marks the on set of disease
-excess cortisol and sugar -> can lead to obesity
EX: chronic stress
◉ hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis Answer: a body system
involved in stress responses
,◉ What hormone does the hypothalamus secrete in HPA Axis?
Answer: Corticotropin- releasing hormone (CRH)
◉ What hormone does the pituitary secrete in HPA Axis? Answer:
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
◉ What hormones does the adrenal secrete in HPA Axis? Answer:
Cortisol and catecholamines
◉ What can cortisol do? Answer: *elevated blood glucose
-promotes resolution and repair(so you must have it)
-Induces T-cell apoptosis
-therapeutically used as a strong inflammatory and
immunosuppressive agents
-cognitive impairments
◉ What cortisol is abnormally elevated what could it cause? Answer:
-obesity
-sleep deprivation
-Diabetes
-loss of bone density
-atherosclerosis
, ◉ Catecholamines Answer: released from the adrenal medulla
-80% epinephrine and 20% Norepinephrine
◉ what do Catecholamines do? Answer: -increase blood flow and
glucose metabolism in the brain
-increased rate and force of heart contraction
-peripheral vasoconstriction in cardiovascular system
-Bronchodialation in pulmonary system
◉ Body's lines of defense Answer: 1. Innate (natural) immunity
2. Inflammatory responce
3. Adaptive (acquire, specific) immunity
◉ First line of defense Answer: -physical barriers: skin and mucous
membranes
-Mechanical barriers: linings of gastrointestinal, genitourinary, and
respiratory tracts (coughing/sneezing, urinating, vomiting, mucous
and cilia)
"guards at the gate"
*NON-SPECIFIC*
CONCEPTS AND CLINICAL PERSPECTIVES
BUNDLED QUESTIONS 2026
◉ Alarm stage of GAS Answer: *Emergency Reaction: Fight or Flight
-Epinephrine and Norepinephrine are released causing sweat,
nausea, increased heart rate
◉ Resistance/adaptation stage Answer: *body attempts homeostasis
-Actions of adrenal hormones
-heart rate slows, nausea stops, sweat stops
◉ Exhaustion Stage/ allostatic overload Answer: *body can no
longer produce hormones
-Only occurs if stress continues and adaptation is not successful
-body's physiological and immune system no longer efficiently cope
with the stressor and marks the on set of disease
-excess cortisol and sugar -> can lead to obesity
EX: chronic stress
◉ hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis Answer: a body system
involved in stress responses
,◉ What hormone does the hypothalamus secrete in HPA Axis?
Answer: Corticotropin- releasing hormone (CRH)
◉ What hormone does the pituitary secrete in HPA Axis? Answer:
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
◉ What hormones does the adrenal secrete in HPA Axis? Answer:
Cortisol and catecholamines
◉ What can cortisol do? Answer: *elevated blood glucose
-promotes resolution and repair(so you must have it)
-Induces T-cell apoptosis
-therapeutically used as a strong inflammatory and
immunosuppressive agents
-cognitive impairments
◉ What cortisol is abnormally elevated what could it cause? Answer:
-obesity
-sleep deprivation
-Diabetes
-loss of bone density
-atherosclerosis
, ◉ Catecholamines Answer: released from the adrenal medulla
-80% epinephrine and 20% Norepinephrine
◉ what do Catecholamines do? Answer: -increase blood flow and
glucose metabolism in the brain
-increased rate and force of heart contraction
-peripheral vasoconstriction in cardiovascular system
-Bronchodialation in pulmonary system
◉ Body's lines of defense Answer: 1. Innate (natural) immunity
2. Inflammatory responce
3. Adaptive (acquire, specific) immunity
◉ First line of defense Answer: -physical barriers: skin and mucous
membranes
-Mechanical barriers: linings of gastrointestinal, genitourinary, and
respiratory tracts (coughing/sneezing, urinating, vomiting, mucous
and cilia)
"guards at the gate"
*NON-SPECIFIC*
