PATHOPHYSIOLOGY INTRODUCTORY
CONCEPTS AND CLINICAL PERSPECTIVES
FINAL PAPER 2026 QUESTIONS WITH
COMPLETE SOLUTIONS GRADED A+
◉ isotonic solution. Answer: - no shift
0.9% NaCl "normal saline"
TX
keep an open IV
with blood transfusion
◉ hypotonic solution. Answer: - add water to the bloodstream
causing a fluid shift form the ECF to ICF
0.45% "half normal saline"
TX
dehydration
,◉ hypertonic solution. Answer: - add solutes to th ebloodstrea,
causing a fluid shift from ICF to ECF = shrinking cells
mannitol
TX
cerebral edema
◉ IV solution similar to blood ___________ ____________. Answer: Lactic
ringers "LR"
◉ NEVER BOLUS K+. Answer: Will cause cardiac arrest
IV K+ must be diluted (40 mEq through a central venous line) -
emergent
◉ __________ and _________ are often used together to treat heart
failure. However this can lead to Hypokalemia and __________ tox and
arrhythmia. Answer: Digitalis and hydrocholothiazide
Digitalis
, ◉ An aldosterone antagonist that causes the retention of K+.
Answer: spironolatone
◉ Hyperkalemia. Answer: >5.2
◉ Hypokalemia. Answer: <3.5
Food high in K+
OJ, banana, dried fruit, meats
PO RX 20-60 mEQ/day
◉ Fluid and Electrolyte imbalance. Answer:
◉ S/S Fluid Volume Deficit. Answer: Dark urine with high specific
gravity
Dry mucous membrane
Low urine output
Ortho Hypo
Poor skin turgor
Thirst
WT loss
CONCEPTS AND CLINICAL PERSPECTIVES
FINAL PAPER 2026 QUESTIONS WITH
COMPLETE SOLUTIONS GRADED A+
◉ isotonic solution. Answer: - no shift
0.9% NaCl "normal saline"
TX
keep an open IV
with blood transfusion
◉ hypotonic solution. Answer: - add water to the bloodstream
causing a fluid shift form the ECF to ICF
0.45% "half normal saline"
TX
dehydration
,◉ hypertonic solution. Answer: - add solutes to th ebloodstrea,
causing a fluid shift from ICF to ECF = shrinking cells
mannitol
TX
cerebral edema
◉ IV solution similar to blood ___________ ____________. Answer: Lactic
ringers "LR"
◉ NEVER BOLUS K+. Answer: Will cause cardiac arrest
IV K+ must be diluted (40 mEq through a central venous line) -
emergent
◉ __________ and _________ are often used together to treat heart
failure. However this can lead to Hypokalemia and __________ tox and
arrhythmia. Answer: Digitalis and hydrocholothiazide
Digitalis
, ◉ An aldosterone antagonist that causes the retention of K+.
Answer: spironolatone
◉ Hyperkalemia. Answer: >5.2
◉ Hypokalemia. Answer: <3.5
Food high in K+
OJ, banana, dried fruit, meats
PO RX 20-60 mEQ/day
◉ Fluid and Electrolyte imbalance. Answer:
◉ S/S Fluid Volume Deficit. Answer: Dark urine with high specific
gravity
Dry mucous membrane
Low urine output
Ortho Hypo
Poor skin turgor
Thirst
WT loss
