JOHN F KENNEDY AND THE ‘NEW FRONTIER’, 1960-1963
THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION OF 1960 AND REASONS FOR KENNEDY’S VICTORY
IKE’S FAILURES: not helpful to N’s campaign = ambiguous + more concerned with defending record against JFK
attacks – eg. claimed 17mil USA’s went to bed hungry each night = ‘They must all be dieting’
- 1959 budget deficit = $13bn = huge spending cuts to ensure 1960 surplus = damage N’s campaign
- NO refute JFK accusation = ‘missile gap’ lest to prompt USSR arms build-up = N weak on defence
- Nixon’s experience = foundation of campaign + reporter asked IKE for ‘major idea’ of Nixon’s = ‘If you
give me a week I might think of one’
- Refused to allow Nixon to call for candidates’ health to be public, JFK had Addison’s disease
NIXON’s ERRORS: Pledged to campaign in all 50 states at Rep Nat Convention – injured knee + ceased
campaigning for 2 weeks, refused to abandon, wasted time visiting states he had no chance of winning + spent
vital final weekend before election in Alaska which only had 3 electoral votes
THE -Not youthful/ prepared on 1st TV debate = “My god they’ve embalmed him before he even died” (Chicago M
POLICIES Daley)–makeup for remaining 3 but 20mil less viewers watched these
AND -Ambassador Lodge = RM – promised N would name AA to cabinet = cheap attempt to win black vote
PERSONA -Refused to take further action when IKE refused to pardon MLK after Georgia sit-in vs JFK who made calls to
LITIES OF get him released = “NO COMMENT NIXON VS A CANDIDATE WITH A HEART, SENATOR KENNEDY”
JFK JFK’s TACTICS: declared he wanted to “get USA moving again” = contrast to IKE stagnation, catch up USSR in
ADMIN. space race – proposed bipartisan congressional investigation into missile gap
-Visited Warm Springs + shook hands of people with polio, spoke at rehab facility where Roosevelt had died,
paid tribute to him + discussed six-point plan for healthcare
-Handled scepticism about his Catholicism well, declared he was not the “Catholic candidate for president”,
loyalty = country not Rome – balanced ticket with Southerner LBJ
-personable candidate, used youth to his advantage – dynamic
RESULTS: national popular vote JFK won by 0.17% = closest margin of 20th century
THE IDEAS BEHIND THE NEW FRONTIER: - optimism about future
JULY 1960: introduced NF in presidential nom acceptance speech at Dem Nat convention
-POVERTY AND SURPLUS: born into a wealthy family, did not initially interest JFK – campaigned in
impoverished WV = opened his eyes + pledged not be indifferent to pov like IKE
-PEACE AND WAR: conducted Cold Warrior campaigns, emphasised Dems defended nation against evil Comm +
suggested IKE admin = stuck in CW rut
-NEW GEN OF LEADERSHIP: master of rhetoric, needed to differentiate from ND/FD while demonstrating
liberalism, burnished JFK charisma with idealism + dynamism vs IKE complacency
THE PERSONALITIES OF JFK ADMINISTRATION: + DEAN RUSK = SoS – ‘the best and the brightest’
OFFICIAL CHARACTER SUCCESSES: FAILURES:
LBJ: VP - Pragmatic, hawkish SR: chaired NASA + pushed Excluded from FP+ had no real
Southern concerning FP but had Apollo program influence on CW decisions
THE little influence CR: worked BTS to advance JFK
IDEAS focussed on CR/SR CRB + Freedom Riders
BEHIND Protection
THE ‘NEW BOBBY Strong CR advocate, CR: ordered fed intervention of Alienated officials with
FRONTIER KENNEDY: key FP advisor in UoMiss crisis aggressive style
Attorney crises Crackdown on organised crime: Accusation of nepotism
General prosecutions up by 300%
McNAMARA: Data-driven Hawk, CW: Flexible Response Doctrine Increased adv = 16k
SoD McNamara fallacy, 1961 = adaptable military Diem Coup: helped plan
favoured escalation in strategy, increased nuclear overthrow, destabilised regime,
VW spending on deterrence ‘McNamara’s war’
McGeorge Favoured CMC: helped JFK reject BoP: helped plan CIA failed Cuba
BUNDY: Nat interventionism, key immediate airstrikes + pushed escalation in VW
Sec Advisor architect of FP Inc WH inf over FP
Allan Dulles: Hawk, covert missions Increased US intelligence BoP: underestimates Castro’s
, JOHN F KENNEDY AND THE ‘NEW FRONTIER’, 1960-1963
CIA Director + regime change operations resistance + forced to resign
DOMESTIC POLICIES: JFK ‘style over substance’?
-1961: AREA REDEVELOPMENT ACT: granted $393m to extend job opp to poorer states eg. WV – poorly funded
by C but created 26,000 jobs HOWEVER 5mil = unemployed + C didn’t reauthorize in 1963 – fed money used for
2 luxury hotels in Oklahoma
-1961: SS AMENDMENTS: expanded benefits for elderly/disabled = cover 5 million
-1961: OMNIBUS HOUSING ACT: granted $5bn for extension of existing programmes eg. urban renewal +
public housing, low interest loans HOWEVER the act was designed to combat recession by helping developers
rather than alleviating poverty
-1962 MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT AND TRAINING ACT: aimed to train unemployed because of increased tech
change – by DEC boasted 350 approved programmes HOWEVER mainly subsidised officials and priv int who
provided training rather than decreasing unemp
-MIN WAGE ACT: raised by 25 cents HOWEVER half mil of poorest remained without coverage
1963: JFK( had a mentally ill sister named Rosemary = given a lobotomy, organised by her father) submitted the
nation's first presidential special message to Congress on mental health issue = act passed for new facilites (inc
of people using MH facilities x6)
- Dept of Agriculture to double food dist to poor e.g. foot stamp prog fed 240,000 costing $22m annually
LEGISLATIVE FAILURES: failed to get C support for major initiatives
- 1961: rejected Fed fin aid for elem/sec edu
- 1961/2: repeatedly rejected a Dept of Urban Affairs to halt urban decline
- 1963: rejected senior citizen healthcare to alleviate pov from medical bills
- CRB to end JC remained stuck in Congress
OVERALL: no major new dom leg, extensions of existing progs but did put ‘pov+surplus’ on nat agenda
CHALLENGES TO US POWER
LEGACY K = struggling to stay in power: 1949-58 2 million EG-WG (symbol of prosperity) = ‘brain drain’, demonstrating
OF CRISES strength of W ideology + wanted to halt public display of Soviet’s unpopularity
OVER NOV 1958: Berlin Ultimatum
BERLIN VIENNA JUNE 1961: K said something needed to be done– soon after K announced inc exp
AND 13 AUGUST 1961: 30-mile wall – JFK: “wall is a hell of a lot better than a war”
RELATION SIGNIFICANCE OF BERLIN WALL:
S WITH - Inc WG antagonism + CW tensions– 1963 JFK visited WB to assure support = “Ich bin ein Berliner”
KRUSH - W writers + DEAN RUSK (instructed by JFK) = triumph, demonstrated EG needed to control pop
- Perceived victory for Khrushchev = encouraged adventurism in Cuba
CASTRO: JAN 1959: Castro overthrows pro-US Batista – inc criticised US econ hold over Cuba
SPRING 1960: CIA concluded he was not Communist
JULY 1960: IKE placed econ sanctions on Cuba + approved CIA build-up of exile military force to overthrow – JFK
inherited tense relations
1960: Castro asks Comms to buy Cuban sugar – agreed
BAY OF PIGS: JFK received warnings against invasion of Cuba but went ahead because:
- Believed 3rd world countries = new CW arena
- Plan endorsed by IKE military hero president + CIA
- Prisoner of his own anti-Comm rhetoric – had promised if elected to not allow Cuba = Soviet base
THE APRIL 1961: 1600 landed (LB 2506) but DISASTER because Castro = forewarned ( 20,000), invaders landed miles
CHALLEN from escape route, Castro = popular SO exiles = killed or captured - Approval ratings crazily = 82%
GE OF -Castro announced he was Comm
CASTRO’S CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS:
CUBA AUG 1962: Soviet nuclear missiles arrived in Cuba – why?:
- K claimed he wanted to protect Cuba but main int = USSR position, feared US nuclear superiority
- Resented US bases in Turkey
- Wanted to impress critics at home and China
KENNEDY RESPONSE: SEPT 1962: rumours USSR placed missiles in Cuba but JFK = confident otherwise
THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION OF 1960 AND REASONS FOR KENNEDY’S VICTORY
IKE’S FAILURES: not helpful to N’s campaign = ambiguous + more concerned with defending record against JFK
attacks – eg. claimed 17mil USA’s went to bed hungry each night = ‘They must all be dieting’
- 1959 budget deficit = $13bn = huge spending cuts to ensure 1960 surplus = damage N’s campaign
- NO refute JFK accusation = ‘missile gap’ lest to prompt USSR arms build-up = N weak on defence
- Nixon’s experience = foundation of campaign + reporter asked IKE for ‘major idea’ of Nixon’s = ‘If you
give me a week I might think of one’
- Refused to allow Nixon to call for candidates’ health to be public, JFK had Addison’s disease
NIXON’s ERRORS: Pledged to campaign in all 50 states at Rep Nat Convention – injured knee + ceased
campaigning for 2 weeks, refused to abandon, wasted time visiting states he had no chance of winning + spent
vital final weekend before election in Alaska which only had 3 electoral votes
THE -Not youthful/ prepared on 1st TV debate = “My god they’ve embalmed him before he even died” (Chicago M
POLICIES Daley)–makeup for remaining 3 but 20mil less viewers watched these
AND -Ambassador Lodge = RM – promised N would name AA to cabinet = cheap attempt to win black vote
PERSONA -Refused to take further action when IKE refused to pardon MLK after Georgia sit-in vs JFK who made calls to
LITIES OF get him released = “NO COMMENT NIXON VS A CANDIDATE WITH A HEART, SENATOR KENNEDY”
JFK JFK’s TACTICS: declared he wanted to “get USA moving again” = contrast to IKE stagnation, catch up USSR in
ADMIN. space race – proposed bipartisan congressional investigation into missile gap
-Visited Warm Springs + shook hands of people with polio, spoke at rehab facility where Roosevelt had died,
paid tribute to him + discussed six-point plan for healthcare
-Handled scepticism about his Catholicism well, declared he was not the “Catholic candidate for president”,
loyalty = country not Rome – balanced ticket with Southerner LBJ
-personable candidate, used youth to his advantage – dynamic
RESULTS: national popular vote JFK won by 0.17% = closest margin of 20th century
THE IDEAS BEHIND THE NEW FRONTIER: - optimism about future
JULY 1960: introduced NF in presidential nom acceptance speech at Dem Nat convention
-POVERTY AND SURPLUS: born into a wealthy family, did not initially interest JFK – campaigned in
impoverished WV = opened his eyes + pledged not be indifferent to pov like IKE
-PEACE AND WAR: conducted Cold Warrior campaigns, emphasised Dems defended nation against evil Comm +
suggested IKE admin = stuck in CW rut
-NEW GEN OF LEADERSHIP: master of rhetoric, needed to differentiate from ND/FD while demonstrating
liberalism, burnished JFK charisma with idealism + dynamism vs IKE complacency
THE PERSONALITIES OF JFK ADMINISTRATION: + DEAN RUSK = SoS – ‘the best and the brightest’
OFFICIAL CHARACTER SUCCESSES: FAILURES:
LBJ: VP - Pragmatic, hawkish SR: chaired NASA + pushed Excluded from FP+ had no real
Southern concerning FP but had Apollo program influence on CW decisions
THE little influence CR: worked BTS to advance JFK
IDEAS focussed on CR/SR CRB + Freedom Riders
BEHIND Protection
THE ‘NEW BOBBY Strong CR advocate, CR: ordered fed intervention of Alienated officials with
FRONTIER KENNEDY: key FP advisor in UoMiss crisis aggressive style
Attorney crises Crackdown on organised crime: Accusation of nepotism
General prosecutions up by 300%
McNAMARA: Data-driven Hawk, CW: Flexible Response Doctrine Increased adv = 16k
SoD McNamara fallacy, 1961 = adaptable military Diem Coup: helped plan
favoured escalation in strategy, increased nuclear overthrow, destabilised regime,
VW spending on deterrence ‘McNamara’s war’
McGeorge Favoured CMC: helped JFK reject BoP: helped plan CIA failed Cuba
BUNDY: Nat interventionism, key immediate airstrikes + pushed escalation in VW
Sec Advisor architect of FP Inc WH inf over FP
Allan Dulles: Hawk, covert missions Increased US intelligence BoP: underestimates Castro’s
, JOHN F KENNEDY AND THE ‘NEW FRONTIER’, 1960-1963
CIA Director + regime change operations resistance + forced to resign
DOMESTIC POLICIES: JFK ‘style over substance’?
-1961: AREA REDEVELOPMENT ACT: granted $393m to extend job opp to poorer states eg. WV – poorly funded
by C but created 26,000 jobs HOWEVER 5mil = unemployed + C didn’t reauthorize in 1963 – fed money used for
2 luxury hotels in Oklahoma
-1961: SS AMENDMENTS: expanded benefits for elderly/disabled = cover 5 million
-1961: OMNIBUS HOUSING ACT: granted $5bn for extension of existing programmes eg. urban renewal +
public housing, low interest loans HOWEVER the act was designed to combat recession by helping developers
rather than alleviating poverty
-1962 MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT AND TRAINING ACT: aimed to train unemployed because of increased tech
change – by DEC boasted 350 approved programmes HOWEVER mainly subsidised officials and priv int who
provided training rather than decreasing unemp
-MIN WAGE ACT: raised by 25 cents HOWEVER half mil of poorest remained without coverage
1963: JFK( had a mentally ill sister named Rosemary = given a lobotomy, organised by her father) submitted the
nation's first presidential special message to Congress on mental health issue = act passed for new facilites (inc
of people using MH facilities x6)
- Dept of Agriculture to double food dist to poor e.g. foot stamp prog fed 240,000 costing $22m annually
LEGISLATIVE FAILURES: failed to get C support for major initiatives
- 1961: rejected Fed fin aid for elem/sec edu
- 1961/2: repeatedly rejected a Dept of Urban Affairs to halt urban decline
- 1963: rejected senior citizen healthcare to alleviate pov from medical bills
- CRB to end JC remained stuck in Congress
OVERALL: no major new dom leg, extensions of existing progs but did put ‘pov+surplus’ on nat agenda
CHALLENGES TO US POWER
LEGACY K = struggling to stay in power: 1949-58 2 million EG-WG (symbol of prosperity) = ‘brain drain’, demonstrating
OF CRISES strength of W ideology + wanted to halt public display of Soviet’s unpopularity
OVER NOV 1958: Berlin Ultimatum
BERLIN VIENNA JUNE 1961: K said something needed to be done– soon after K announced inc exp
AND 13 AUGUST 1961: 30-mile wall – JFK: “wall is a hell of a lot better than a war”
RELATION SIGNIFICANCE OF BERLIN WALL:
S WITH - Inc WG antagonism + CW tensions– 1963 JFK visited WB to assure support = “Ich bin ein Berliner”
KRUSH - W writers + DEAN RUSK (instructed by JFK) = triumph, demonstrated EG needed to control pop
- Perceived victory for Khrushchev = encouraged adventurism in Cuba
CASTRO: JAN 1959: Castro overthrows pro-US Batista – inc criticised US econ hold over Cuba
SPRING 1960: CIA concluded he was not Communist
JULY 1960: IKE placed econ sanctions on Cuba + approved CIA build-up of exile military force to overthrow – JFK
inherited tense relations
1960: Castro asks Comms to buy Cuban sugar – agreed
BAY OF PIGS: JFK received warnings against invasion of Cuba but went ahead because:
- Believed 3rd world countries = new CW arena
- Plan endorsed by IKE military hero president + CIA
- Prisoner of his own anti-Comm rhetoric – had promised if elected to not allow Cuba = Soviet base
THE APRIL 1961: 1600 landed (LB 2506) but DISASTER because Castro = forewarned ( 20,000), invaders landed miles
CHALLEN from escape route, Castro = popular SO exiles = killed or captured - Approval ratings crazily = 82%
GE OF -Castro announced he was Comm
CASTRO’S CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS:
CUBA AUG 1962: Soviet nuclear missiles arrived in Cuba – why?:
- K claimed he wanted to protect Cuba but main int = USSR position, feared US nuclear superiority
- Resented US bases in Turkey
- Wanted to impress critics at home and China
KENNEDY RESPONSE: SEPT 1962: rumours USSR placed missiles in Cuba but JFK = confident otherwise
