CANC 380 MODULE 2 EXAM QUESTIONS
AND ANSWERS
What is cancer heterogeneity? - Answer- The presence of genetically distinct
subpopulations within tumors.
What are the implications of tumor heterogeneity? - Answer- Different responses to
therapy, drug resistance, and disease recurrence.
What is divergent evolution in the context of cancer? - Answer- The accumulation of
new mutations leading to phenotypically distinct cancer cells.
What is convergent evolution in cancer? - Answer- Different lineages acquiring
mutations that result in similar phenotypes or advantages.
What does the Gleason score measure? - Answer- Patterns of cellular differentiation in
prostate cancer.
How does the Gleason score relate to tumor heterogeneity? - Answer- It reflects
underlying genomic differences and different differentiation states of subpopulations.
What is clonal competition? - Answer- Cancer cells competing for space, nutrients, and
oxygen during tumor evolution.
What can occur during a biopsy of a tumor? - Answer- Random samples may miss
critical tumor cell populations, leading to inaccurate diagnosis.
How does tumor heterogeneity affect treatment in early-stage cancer? - Answer-
Therapies are more effective due to lower heterogeneity and fewer resistant clones.
What is the challenge of treating advanced/metastatic cancer? - Answer- High
heterogeneity increases the likelihood of pre-existing resistant clones.
What is the gradualism model of clonal evolution? - Answer- A slow, continuous
accumulation of mutations, possibly occurring in early tumor development.
What characterizes the punctuated equilibrium model in cancer? - Answer- Long
periods of genetic stability interrupted by rapid bursts of mutation and clonal
expansions.
, What does the cancer stem cell hypothesis emphasize? - Answer- Clonal expansion
and selection acting on proliferative cells, with cancer stem cells driving tumor growth.
What are the evolutionary advantages of tumor heterogeneity? - Answer- Increases the
probability that some clones survive stress, evade immune responses, and resist
therapy.
What are the evolutionary disadvantages of tumor heterogeneity? - Answer- Makes
cancer difficult to treat and prone to relapse; increases over time as mutations
accumulate.
What are the three main factors considered in the stages of cancer? - Answer- Size,
location, and spread of the tumor.
What does grading in cancer refer to? - Answer- The physical appearance of malignant
cells.
What does the 'T' in the TNM staging system stand for? - Answer- Tumor - it indicates
the size and location of the primary tumor.
What does the 'N' in the TNM staging system represent? - Answer- Node - it assesses
whether the tumor has spread to lymph nodes and if so, where and how many.
What does the 'M' in the TNM staging system indicate? - Answer- Metastasis - it refers
to the spread of cancer to other body parts.
What does TNM stand for in cancer staging? - Answer- Tumor, Node, Metastasis.
What is Stage 0 in cancer staging? - Answer- 'In situ': cancer is in the position where it
started and is highly curable.
What characterizes Stage 1 cancer? - Answer- Localized cancer that begins to invade
neighboring tissues but remains a single lump.
What happens in Stage 2 and 3 cancer? - Answer- Cancer divides and grows into
surrounding tissues and may have spread to lymph nodes.
What defines Stage 4 cancer? - Answer- Cancer has spread to other organs or body
parts (metastatic).
What is the difference between non-muscle invasive and muscle-invasive bladder
cancer? - Answer- Non-muscle invasive (NMIBC) does not invade the bladder wall,
while muscle-invasive (MIBC) extends into the muscular wall.
What does TIS indicate in bladder cancer staging? - Answer- Flat carcinoma in situ,
only found near or on the bladder surface.
AND ANSWERS
What is cancer heterogeneity? - Answer- The presence of genetically distinct
subpopulations within tumors.
What are the implications of tumor heterogeneity? - Answer- Different responses to
therapy, drug resistance, and disease recurrence.
What is divergent evolution in the context of cancer? - Answer- The accumulation of
new mutations leading to phenotypically distinct cancer cells.
What is convergent evolution in cancer? - Answer- Different lineages acquiring
mutations that result in similar phenotypes or advantages.
What does the Gleason score measure? - Answer- Patterns of cellular differentiation in
prostate cancer.
How does the Gleason score relate to tumor heterogeneity? - Answer- It reflects
underlying genomic differences and different differentiation states of subpopulations.
What is clonal competition? - Answer- Cancer cells competing for space, nutrients, and
oxygen during tumor evolution.
What can occur during a biopsy of a tumor? - Answer- Random samples may miss
critical tumor cell populations, leading to inaccurate diagnosis.
How does tumor heterogeneity affect treatment in early-stage cancer? - Answer-
Therapies are more effective due to lower heterogeneity and fewer resistant clones.
What is the challenge of treating advanced/metastatic cancer? - Answer- High
heterogeneity increases the likelihood of pre-existing resistant clones.
What is the gradualism model of clonal evolution? - Answer- A slow, continuous
accumulation of mutations, possibly occurring in early tumor development.
What characterizes the punctuated equilibrium model in cancer? - Answer- Long
periods of genetic stability interrupted by rapid bursts of mutation and clonal
expansions.
, What does the cancer stem cell hypothesis emphasize? - Answer- Clonal expansion
and selection acting on proliferative cells, with cancer stem cells driving tumor growth.
What are the evolutionary advantages of tumor heterogeneity? - Answer- Increases the
probability that some clones survive stress, evade immune responses, and resist
therapy.
What are the evolutionary disadvantages of tumor heterogeneity? - Answer- Makes
cancer difficult to treat and prone to relapse; increases over time as mutations
accumulate.
What are the three main factors considered in the stages of cancer? - Answer- Size,
location, and spread of the tumor.
What does grading in cancer refer to? - Answer- The physical appearance of malignant
cells.
What does the 'T' in the TNM staging system stand for? - Answer- Tumor - it indicates
the size and location of the primary tumor.
What does the 'N' in the TNM staging system represent? - Answer- Node - it assesses
whether the tumor has spread to lymph nodes and if so, where and how many.
What does the 'M' in the TNM staging system indicate? - Answer- Metastasis - it refers
to the spread of cancer to other body parts.
What does TNM stand for in cancer staging? - Answer- Tumor, Node, Metastasis.
What is Stage 0 in cancer staging? - Answer- 'In situ': cancer is in the position where it
started and is highly curable.
What characterizes Stage 1 cancer? - Answer- Localized cancer that begins to invade
neighboring tissues but remains a single lump.
What happens in Stage 2 and 3 cancer? - Answer- Cancer divides and grows into
surrounding tissues and may have spread to lymph nodes.
What defines Stage 4 cancer? - Answer- Cancer has spread to other organs or body
parts (metastatic).
What is the difference between non-muscle invasive and muscle-invasive bladder
cancer? - Answer- Non-muscle invasive (NMIBC) does not invade the bladder wall,
while muscle-invasive (MIBC) extends into the muscular wall.
What does TIS indicate in bladder cancer staging? - Answer- Flat carcinoma in situ,
only found near or on the bladder surface.
