POL3701
Assignment 2 Semester 1
Unique No: 279370
Due 7 April 2026
, CRIME ANALYSIS, POLICING STRATEGIES, AND
INTELLIGENCE
GIS, Crime Pattern Analysis, Problem-Solving Policing & Crime Threat Analysis
1 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Crime Pattern Analysis (CPA)
1.1 Information Provided by Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are powerful digital mapping and spatial analysis
tools that allow law enforcement agencies to visualise, capture, store, analyse, and manage
crime-related data in a geographic context (Boba Santos, 2013). GIS integrates data layers
to produce detailed crime maps that inform policing decisions. According to Chainey and
Ratcliffe (2005), GIS enables police analysts to understand not just where crimes occur, but
also why certain areas are hotspots.
GIS documents can provide the following categories of information:
(a) Spatial Distribution and Location of Crime
GIS documents precisely map where crimes are occurring within a jurisdiction. Using geocoded
data, analysts can pinpoint crime locations on a map down to street level. For example, a
series of residential burglaries in Pretoria’s east suburbs can be plotted to reveal that 80%
cluster within a 500-metre radius of a specific shopping mall, suggesting a target-rich environ-
ment (Ratcliffe, 2004). This spatial distribution information helps commanders deploy patrol
resources where they are most needed.
(b) Crime Hotspots
One of GIS’s most valuable functions is the identification of crime hotspots — geographic
areas that experience a disproportionately high volume of criminal activity. Kernel density
estimation (KDE) and point mapping are techniques GIS uses to visually represent hotspot
areas (Chainey & Ratcliffe, 2005). For example, a GIS analysis of assault data in Johannes-
burg’s inner city might reveal a consistent hotspot around taxi ranks between 22:00 and 02:00,
enabling proactive late-night patrols specifically in those areas.
1
, UNISA | Criminology & Policing Crime Analysis Assignment
(c) Temporal-Spatial Patterns
GIS documents can combine time data with location data to reveal when and where crimes
cluster. Time-series mapping shows shifts in hotspots over days, weeks, or seasons. For ex-
ample, a GIS map might reveal that vehicle thefts shift geographically from residential areas
during weekdays to entertainment district parking lots on weekends. This type of temporal-
spatial information assists in forecasting where crimes are likely to occur next (Santos, 2016).
(d) Environmental and Physical Features
GIS documents overlay crime data with environmental features such as land use, road net-
works, public transport routes, schools, parks, liquor outlets, and poorly lit areas (Clarke &
Eck, 2005). This is particularly useful in applying Crime Prevention Through Environmental
Design (CPTED) principles. For example, GIS analysis may show a correlation between un-
licensed liquor outlets and assault hotspots, informing both policing and municipal licensing
decisions.
(e) Repeat Victimisation Patterns
GIS identifies repeat victimisation — properties, businesses, or individuals targeted multiple
times — and maps these concentrations geographically (Farrell & Pease, 2017). For example,
a particular ATM location that appears repeatedly on a GIS robbery map signals a high-risk
target that warrants protective intervention.
(f ) Resource Deployment and Patrol Optimisation
GIS documents support strategic resource allocation by showing commanders where to deploy
patrol vehicles, foot police, and visible policing units. By linking crime hotspots with response
time data, GIS can also identify geographical coverage gaps (Boba Santos, 2013). For example,
analysis might show that a high-crime ward in Cape Town has an average police response time
of 45 minutes, flagging a critical operational deficit.
(g) Boundary and Jurisdictional Information
GIS documents provide clear information on police precinct boundaries, ward boundaries, and
patrol zones. This is essential for command accountability, inter-agency coordination, and
for ensuring that crimes near jurisdictional borders are correctly attributed and addressed
(Chainey & Ratcliffe, 2005).
Key distinction: GIS provides the where and when infrastructure; CPA provides the
why and how interpretation (Vellani, 2006).
Page 2 of 15
Assignment 2 Semester 1
Unique No: 279370
Due 7 April 2026
, CRIME ANALYSIS, POLICING STRATEGIES, AND
INTELLIGENCE
GIS, Crime Pattern Analysis, Problem-Solving Policing & Crime Threat Analysis
1 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Crime Pattern Analysis (CPA)
1.1 Information Provided by Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are powerful digital mapping and spatial analysis
tools that allow law enforcement agencies to visualise, capture, store, analyse, and manage
crime-related data in a geographic context (Boba Santos, 2013). GIS integrates data layers
to produce detailed crime maps that inform policing decisions. According to Chainey and
Ratcliffe (2005), GIS enables police analysts to understand not just where crimes occur, but
also why certain areas are hotspots.
GIS documents can provide the following categories of information:
(a) Spatial Distribution and Location of Crime
GIS documents precisely map where crimes are occurring within a jurisdiction. Using geocoded
data, analysts can pinpoint crime locations on a map down to street level. For example, a
series of residential burglaries in Pretoria’s east suburbs can be plotted to reveal that 80%
cluster within a 500-metre radius of a specific shopping mall, suggesting a target-rich environ-
ment (Ratcliffe, 2004). This spatial distribution information helps commanders deploy patrol
resources where they are most needed.
(b) Crime Hotspots
One of GIS’s most valuable functions is the identification of crime hotspots — geographic
areas that experience a disproportionately high volume of criminal activity. Kernel density
estimation (KDE) and point mapping are techniques GIS uses to visually represent hotspot
areas (Chainey & Ratcliffe, 2005). For example, a GIS analysis of assault data in Johannes-
burg’s inner city might reveal a consistent hotspot around taxi ranks between 22:00 and 02:00,
enabling proactive late-night patrols specifically in those areas.
1
, UNISA | Criminology & Policing Crime Analysis Assignment
(c) Temporal-Spatial Patterns
GIS documents can combine time data with location data to reveal when and where crimes
cluster. Time-series mapping shows shifts in hotspots over days, weeks, or seasons. For ex-
ample, a GIS map might reveal that vehicle thefts shift geographically from residential areas
during weekdays to entertainment district parking lots on weekends. This type of temporal-
spatial information assists in forecasting where crimes are likely to occur next (Santos, 2016).
(d) Environmental and Physical Features
GIS documents overlay crime data with environmental features such as land use, road net-
works, public transport routes, schools, parks, liquor outlets, and poorly lit areas (Clarke &
Eck, 2005). This is particularly useful in applying Crime Prevention Through Environmental
Design (CPTED) principles. For example, GIS analysis may show a correlation between un-
licensed liquor outlets and assault hotspots, informing both policing and municipal licensing
decisions.
(e) Repeat Victimisation Patterns
GIS identifies repeat victimisation — properties, businesses, or individuals targeted multiple
times — and maps these concentrations geographically (Farrell & Pease, 2017). For example,
a particular ATM location that appears repeatedly on a GIS robbery map signals a high-risk
target that warrants protective intervention.
(f ) Resource Deployment and Patrol Optimisation
GIS documents support strategic resource allocation by showing commanders where to deploy
patrol vehicles, foot police, and visible policing units. By linking crime hotspots with response
time data, GIS can also identify geographical coverage gaps (Boba Santos, 2013). For example,
analysis might show that a high-crime ward in Cape Town has an average police response time
of 45 minutes, flagging a critical operational deficit.
(g) Boundary and Jurisdictional Information
GIS documents provide clear information on police precinct boundaries, ward boundaries, and
patrol zones. This is essential for command accountability, inter-agency coordination, and
for ensuring that crimes near jurisdictional borders are correctly attributed and addressed
(Chainey & Ratcliffe, 2005).
Key distinction: GIS provides the where and when infrastructure; CPA provides the
why and how interpretation (Vellani, 2006).
Page 2 of 15
