CMY3706 – Contemporary Criminology | Assignment 1
CMY3706: CONTEMPORARY CRIMINOLOGY COMPLETE SOLUTION
LATEST UPDATED 2026/2027
UNIVERSITY O
CollF
ege oS O
f La w UTH AFRICA
CMY3706
Contemporary Criminology
ASSIGNMENT 1
Student Name: [Your Full Name]
Student Number: [Your Student Number]
Module Code: CMY3706
Module Name: Contemporary Criminology
Assignment: Assignment 1
Unique Number: [Unique Assignment Number]
Due Date: [Submission Date]
Word Count: Approximately 2,500 words
DECLARATION
I declare that this assignment is my own original work. Where secondary sources have been used, these
have been properly acknowledged. I have not previously submitted this work, or any part of it, for
assessment in any other module. I am aware of the implications of plagiarism and understand that UNISA
has the right to use plagiarism detection tools to verify the originality of submitted work.
Signature: Date:
University of South Africa (UNISA) Page 1
, CMY3706 – Contemporary Criminology | Assignment 1
1. Introduction
Contemporary criminology is an evolving academic discipline that seeks to understand, explain,
and respond to crime and deviant behaviour in modern society. Unlike classical criminology,
which focused narrowly on legal definitions and punitive responses, contemporary criminology
draws on a wide array of theoretical frameworks, empirical research methods, and
interdisciplinary insights to produce a richer and more nuanced account of criminal behaviour
(Newburn, 2017).
This assignment critically examines three key areas central to contemporary criminology: (1) the
application of social learning theory to understanding criminal behaviour; (2) the role of strain
theory in explaining youth offending in South Africa; and (3) a critical evaluation of restorative
justice as an alternative to punitive sanctioning. Each section integrates relevant theory with
contemporary empirical evidence and considers implications for criminal justice policy.
The discussion draws on prescribed module material as well as additional scholarly sources. A
Harvard referencing style is used throughout.
2. Question 1: Social Learning Theory and Criminal Behaviour
2.1 Overview of Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory, most prominently developed by Edwin Sutherland (1939) through his
concept of differential association, and later expanded by Akers (1985) into a broader social
learning framework, posits that criminal behaviour is learned through social interaction.
Individuals are socialised into crime in the same way they are socialised into conforming
behaviour — through exposure to definitions, reinforcements, and role models within their
immediate social environment.
Akers' (1985) reformulation introduced four key concepts: differential association (exposure to
pro-criminal or anti-criminal attitudes), definitions (personal attitudes toward behaviour),
differential reinforcement (reward and punishment mechanisms), and imitation (modelling
behaviour observed in others). Together, these elements explain how individuals come to adopt
criminal patterns of conduct.
2.2 Application to Contemporary Crime
Social learning theory remains highly relevant in the South African context. Gangsterism on the
Cape Flats, for example, can be analysed through this framework: young men growing up in
gang-dominated neighbourhoods are exposed to differential associations that normalise
violence, drug distribution, and territorial conflict. The tangible material rewards of gang
membership (income, protection, status) serve as positive reinforcements, while the community's
inability to provide competing legitimate reinforcements creates conditions conducive to criminal
socialisation (Pinnock, 2016).
University of South Africa (UNISA) Page 2
CMY3706: CONTEMPORARY CRIMINOLOGY COMPLETE SOLUTION
LATEST UPDATED 2026/2027
UNIVERSITY O
CollF
ege oS O
f La w UTH AFRICA
CMY3706
Contemporary Criminology
ASSIGNMENT 1
Student Name: [Your Full Name]
Student Number: [Your Student Number]
Module Code: CMY3706
Module Name: Contemporary Criminology
Assignment: Assignment 1
Unique Number: [Unique Assignment Number]
Due Date: [Submission Date]
Word Count: Approximately 2,500 words
DECLARATION
I declare that this assignment is my own original work. Where secondary sources have been used, these
have been properly acknowledged. I have not previously submitted this work, or any part of it, for
assessment in any other module. I am aware of the implications of plagiarism and understand that UNISA
has the right to use plagiarism detection tools to verify the originality of submitted work.
Signature: Date:
University of South Africa (UNISA) Page 1
, CMY3706 – Contemporary Criminology | Assignment 1
1. Introduction
Contemporary criminology is an evolving academic discipline that seeks to understand, explain,
and respond to crime and deviant behaviour in modern society. Unlike classical criminology,
which focused narrowly on legal definitions and punitive responses, contemporary criminology
draws on a wide array of theoretical frameworks, empirical research methods, and
interdisciplinary insights to produce a richer and more nuanced account of criminal behaviour
(Newburn, 2017).
This assignment critically examines three key areas central to contemporary criminology: (1) the
application of social learning theory to understanding criminal behaviour; (2) the role of strain
theory in explaining youth offending in South Africa; and (3) a critical evaluation of restorative
justice as an alternative to punitive sanctioning. Each section integrates relevant theory with
contemporary empirical evidence and considers implications for criminal justice policy.
The discussion draws on prescribed module material as well as additional scholarly sources. A
Harvard referencing style is used throughout.
2. Question 1: Social Learning Theory and Criminal Behaviour
2.1 Overview of Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory, most prominently developed by Edwin Sutherland (1939) through his
concept of differential association, and later expanded by Akers (1985) into a broader social
learning framework, posits that criminal behaviour is learned through social interaction.
Individuals are socialised into crime in the same way they are socialised into conforming
behaviour — through exposure to definitions, reinforcements, and role models within their
immediate social environment.
Akers' (1985) reformulation introduced four key concepts: differential association (exposure to
pro-criminal or anti-criminal attitudes), definitions (personal attitudes toward behaviour),
differential reinforcement (reward and punishment mechanisms), and imitation (modelling
behaviour observed in others). Together, these elements explain how individuals come to adopt
criminal patterns of conduct.
2.2 Application to Contemporary Crime
Social learning theory remains highly relevant in the South African context. Gangsterism on the
Cape Flats, for example, can be analysed through this framework: young men growing up in
gang-dominated neighbourhoods are exposed to differential associations that normalise
violence, drug distribution, and territorial conflict. The tangible material rewards of gang
membership (income, protection, status) serve as positive reinforcements, while the community's
inability to provide competing legitimate reinforcements creates conditions conducive to criminal
socialisation (Pinnock, 2016).
University of South Africa (UNISA) Page 2
