CMY3706 Contemporary Criminology – Exam Q&A
CMY3706: CONTEMPORARY CRIMINOLOGY EXAM COMPLETE
QUESTIONS NAD 100% VERIFIED ANSWERS (PASS GUARANTEE)
2026/2027
Q1. What is contemporary criminology?
ANSWER Contemporary criminology is the modern scientific study of crime,
criminals, criminal behaviour, and the social responses to crime. It draws on
multiple disciplines including sociology, psychology, biology, economics, and
political science to understand the causes, patterns, and consequences of
crime in today's society.
Q2. How does contemporary criminology differ from classical criminology?
ANSWER Classical criminology (18th century) focused on free will, rational
choice, and proportional punishment. Contemporary criminology is broader
and more scientific, incorporating empirical research, multiple theoretical
frameworks, and interdisciplinary approaches to understanding why people
commit crimes and how society should respond.
Q3. What is the positivist school of criminology?
ANSWER The positivist school holds that criminal behaviour is determined
by biological, psychological, or social factors beyond individual free will.
Founded by Cesare Lombroso, it advocates using scientific methods to
identify the causes of crime and treat offenders rather than simply punishing
them.
Q4. Who is considered the 'father of criminology'?
ANSWER Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909) is widely regarded as the father of
criminology. He developed the theory of the 'born criminal' – that certain
individuals are biologically predisposed to commit crime, identifiable by
physical (atavistic) characteristics.
Q5. What is the atavistic theory of crime?
ANSWER Lombroso's atavistic theory proposed that criminals are
evolutionary throwbacks to more primitive human ancestors. They could
allegedly be identified by physical stigmata such as asymmetrical faces, large
jaws, and extra nipples. This theory has since been scientifically discredited.
Page 1
, CMY3706 Contemporary Criminology – Exam Q&A
Q6. What is the difference between crime and deviance?
ANSWER Crime refers to behaviour that violates the criminal law and is
subject to formal legal sanction. Deviance is broader – it includes any
behaviour that violates social norms, whether or not it is illegal. All crime is
deviance, but not all deviance is crime (e.g., wearing unusual clothing is
deviant but not criminal).
Q7. What is social control theory?
ANSWER Social control theory, associated with Travis Hirschi, asks not why
people commit crime but why most people conform. It argues that individuals
are bonded to society through attachment, commitment, involvement, and
belief. When these bonds weaken, individuals are more likely to engage in
criminal behaviour.
Q8. What are the four elements of Hirschi's social bond theory?
ANSWER The four elements are: (1) Attachment – emotional bonds to
others like family and teachers; (2) Commitment – investment in conventional
activities like education and career; (3) Involvement – time spent in legitimate
activities; and (4) Belief – acceptance of the moral validity of the law and
social rules.
Q9. What is strain theory in criminology?
ANSWER Strain theory, developed by Robert Merton, argues that crime
results from a disjunction between culturally approved goals (like financial
success) and the legitimate means available to achieve them. Those without
access to legitimate means may resort to crime as an alternative pathway to
desired goals.
Q10. What are Merton's five modes of adaptation to strain?
ANSWER Merton identified five responses to the gap between goals and
means: (1) Conformity – accepting both goals and means; (2) Innovation –
accepting goals but using illegitimate means (crime); (3) Ritualism –
abandoning goals but following rules; (4) Retreatism – rejecting both goals
and means; (5) Rebellion – rejecting and replacing both.
2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS IN CRIMINOLOGY
Q11. What is differential association theory?
ANSWER Edwin Sutherland's differential association theory proposes that
criminal behaviour is learned through intimate personal groups. People learn
both the techniques for committing crime and the attitudes, motives, and
rationalizations that support criminal activity. Crime is more likely when pro-
criminal associations outweigh anti-criminal ones.
Page 2
, CMY3706 Contemporary Criminology – Exam Q&A
Q12. What is labelling theory?
ANSWER Labelling theory argues that crime and deviance are not inherent
in an act but are created through social reactions and labels applied by those
with power. Once labelled a 'criminal' or 'deviant,' individuals may internalize
this identity and engage in further deviant behaviour (secondary deviance).
Q13. Who are the key theorists associated with labelling theory?
ANSWER Key theorists include Howard Becker (who developed the concept
of 'moral entrepreneurs' and 'outsiders'), Edwin Lemert (who distinguished
primary and secondary deviance), and Erving Goffman (who analysed stigma
and how labels damage social identity).
Q14. What is primary vs. secondary deviance?
ANSWER Primary deviance refers to initial deviant acts that have little
impact on self-concept. Secondary deviance occurs when a person's self-
concept and social identity are reorganized around a deviant role, typically
after being labelled by others. Secondary deviance is the main concern of
labelling theorists.
Q15. What is conflict theory in criminology?
ANSWER Conflict theory argues that crime and criminal law reflect the
interests of powerful groups in society. The powerful use the law and criminal
justice system to maintain their dominance and control subordinate groups.
Crime is thus a product of social inequality and power imbalances rather than
individual pathology.
Q16. What is Marxist criminology?
ANSWER Marxist criminology views crime as a product of capitalist social
relations. It argues that the capitalist system generates crime by creating
inequality, poverty, and alienation. The law serves the interests of the ruling
class, and the criminal justice system disproportionately targets the working
class and marginalized groups.
Q17. What is routine activities theory?
ANSWER Routine activities theory (Cohen and Felson, 1979) proposes that
crime occurs when three elements converge: (1) a motivated offender; (2) a
suitable target; and (3) the absence of a capable guardian. Changes in
everyday routines affect crime rates by altering the frequency of these
convergences.
Q18. What is rational choice theory in criminology?
ANSWER Rational choice theory holds that offenders are rational decision-
makers who weigh the costs and benefits of criminal acts before committing
Page 3
, CMY3706 Contemporary Criminology – Exam Q&A
them. Crime occurs when expected benefits (material gain, status) outweigh
expected costs (punishment, social stigma). This theory underpins many
crime prevention strategies.
Q19. What is deterrence theory?
ANSWER Deterrence theory argues that the threat or imposition of
punishment prevents crime. It distinguishes between specific deterrence
(preventing an individual offender from reoffending) and general deterrence
(discouraging the general public from committing crimes through the example
of punishment).
Q20. What are the three properties of effective deterrence according to
Beccaria?
ANSWER Cesare Beccaria argued that effective deterrence requires
punishment to be: (1) Swift – applied quickly after the crime; (2) Certain –
applied consistently whenever crimes occur; and (3) Proportionate – matched
to the severity of the offence. Certainty is considered more important than
severity.
Q21. What is anomie theory?
ANSWER Anomie theory, originally developed by Emile Durkheim, refers to
a state of normlessness in society where the regulation of individual desires
breaks down. Durkheim linked anomie to high crime and suicide rates during
periods of rapid social change. Merton later adapted it into strain theory.
Q22. What is subcultural theory?
ANSWER Subcultural theory (Albert Cohen, 1955) argues that lower-class
youth who fail to meet middle-class standards develop their own subcultures
with alternative values. These subcultures invert conventional norms, making
criminal and delinquent behaviour a source of status and respect within the
group.
Q23. What is general strain theory (GST)?
ANSWER Robert Agnew's General Strain Theory (1992) expanded Merton's
strain theory by identifying multiple sources of strain: failure to achieve
positively valued goals; removal of positively valued stimuli (e.g., losing a job
or relationship); and presentation of negatively valued stimuli (e.g., abuse or
victimization). Strain leads to negative emotions that may lead to crime.
Q24. What is social disorganization theory?
ANSWER Social disorganization theory (Shaw and McKay) argues that
crime rates are high in certain areas not because of the people who live there,
but because of community characteristics such as poverty, residential
Page 4
CMY3706: CONTEMPORARY CRIMINOLOGY EXAM COMPLETE
QUESTIONS NAD 100% VERIFIED ANSWERS (PASS GUARANTEE)
2026/2027
Q1. What is contemporary criminology?
ANSWER Contemporary criminology is the modern scientific study of crime,
criminals, criminal behaviour, and the social responses to crime. It draws on
multiple disciplines including sociology, psychology, biology, economics, and
political science to understand the causes, patterns, and consequences of
crime in today's society.
Q2. How does contemporary criminology differ from classical criminology?
ANSWER Classical criminology (18th century) focused on free will, rational
choice, and proportional punishment. Contemporary criminology is broader
and more scientific, incorporating empirical research, multiple theoretical
frameworks, and interdisciplinary approaches to understanding why people
commit crimes and how society should respond.
Q3. What is the positivist school of criminology?
ANSWER The positivist school holds that criminal behaviour is determined
by biological, psychological, or social factors beyond individual free will.
Founded by Cesare Lombroso, it advocates using scientific methods to
identify the causes of crime and treat offenders rather than simply punishing
them.
Q4. Who is considered the 'father of criminology'?
ANSWER Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909) is widely regarded as the father of
criminology. He developed the theory of the 'born criminal' – that certain
individuals are biologically predisposed to commit crime, identifiable by
physical (atavistic) characteristics.
Q5. What is the atavistic theory of crime?
ANSWER Lombroso's atavistic theory proposed that criminals are
evolutionary throwbacks to more primitive human ancestors. They could
allegedly be identified by physical stigmata such as asymmetrical faces, large
jaws, and extra nipples. This theory has since been scientifically discredited.
Page 1
, CMY3706 Contemporary Criminology – Exam Q&A
Q6. What is the difference between crime and deviance?
ANSWER Crime refers to behaviour that violates the criminal law and is
subject to formal legal sanction. Deviance is broader – it includes any
behaviour that violates social norms, whether or not it is illegal. All crime is
deviance, but not all deviance is crime (e.g., wearing unusual clothing is
deviant but not criminal).
Q7. What is social control theory?
ANSWER Social control theory, associated with Travis Hirschi, asks not why
people commit crime but why most people conform. It argues that individuals
are bonded to society through attachment, commitment, involvement, and
belief. When these bonds weaken, individuals are more likely to engage in
criminal behaviour.
Q8. What are the four elements of Hirschi's social bond theory?
ANSWER The four elements are: (1) Attachment – emotional bonds to
others like family and teachers; (2) Commitment – investment in conventional
activities like education and career; (3) Involvement – time spent in legitimate
activities; and (4) Belief – acceptance of the moral validity of the law and
social rules.
Q9. What is strain theory in criminology?
ANSWER Strain theory, developed by Robert Merton, argues that crime
results from a disjunction between culturally approved goals (like financial
success) and the legitimate means available to achieve them. Those without
access to legitimate means may resort to crime as an alternative pathway to
desired goals.
Q10. What are Merton's five modes of adaptation to strain?
ANSWER Merton identified five responses to the gap between goals and
means: (1) Conformity – accepting both goals and means; (2) Innovation –
accepting goals but using illegitimate means (crime); (3) Ritualism –
abandoning goals but following rules; (4) Retreatism – rejecting both goals
and means; (5) Rebellion – rejecting and replacing both.
2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS IN CRIMINOLOGY
Q11. What is differential association theory?
ANSWER Edwin Sutherland's differential association theory proposes that
criminal behaviour is learned through intimate personal groups. People learn
both the techniques for committing crime and the attitudes, motives, and
rationalizations that support criminal activity. Crime is more likely when pro-
criminal associations outweigh anti-criminal ones.
Page 2
, CMY3706 Contemporary Criminology – Exam Q&A
Q12. What is labelling theory?
ANSWER Labelling theory argues that crime and deviance are not inherent
in an act but are created through social reactions and labels applied by those
with power. Once labelled a 'criminal' or 'deviant,' individuals may internalize
this identity and engage in further deviant behaviour (secondary deviance).
Q13. Who are the key theorists associated with labelling theory?
ANSWER Key theorists include Howard Becker (who developed the concept
of 'moral entrepreneurs' and 'outsiders'), Edwin Lemert (who distinguished
primary and secondary deviance), and Erving Goffman (who analysed stigma
and how labels damage social identity).
Q14. What is primary vs. secondary deviance?
ANSWER Primary deviance refers to initial deviant acts that have little
impact on self-concept. Secondary deviance occurs when a person's self-
concept and social identity are reorganized around a deviant role, typically
after being labelled by others. Secondary deviance is the main concern of
labelling theorists.
Q15. What is conflict theory in criminology?
ANSWER Conflict theory argues that crime and criminal law reflect the
interests of powerful groups in society. The powerful use the law and criminal
justice system to maintain their dominance and control subordinate groups.
Crime is thus a product of social inequality and power imbalances rather than
individual pathology.
Q16. What is Marxist criminology?
ANSWER Marxist criminology views crime as a product of capitalist social
relations. It argues that the capitalist system generates crime by creating
inequality, poverty, and alienation. The law serves the interests of the ruling
class, and the criminal justice system disproportionately targets the working
class and marginalized groups.
Q17. What is routine activities theory?
ANSWER Routine activities theory (Cohen and Felson, 1979) proposes that
crime occurs when three elements converge: (1) a motivated offender; (2) a
suitable target; and (3) the absence of a capable guardian. Changes in
everyday routines affect crime rates by altering the frequency of these
convergences.
Q18. What is rational choice theory in criminology?
ANSWER Rational choice theory holds that offenders are rational decision-
makers who weigh the costs and benefits of criminal acts before committing
Page 3
, CMY3706 Contemporary Criminology – Exam Q&A
them. Crime occurs when expected benefits (material gain, status) outweigh
expected costs (punishment, social stigma). This theory underpins many
crime prevention strategies.
Q19. What is deterrence theory?
ANSWER Deterrence theory argues that the threat or imposition of
punishment prevents crime. It distinguishes between specific deterrence
(preventing an individual offender from reoffending) and general deterrence
(discouraging the general public from committing crimes through the example
of punishment).
Q20. What are the three properties of effective deterrence according to
Beccaria?
ANSWER Cesare Beccaria argued that effective deterrence requires
punishment to be: (1) Swift – applied quickly after the crime; (2) Certain –
applied consistently whenever crimes occur; and (3) Proportionate – matched
to the severity of the offence. Certainty is considered more important than
severity.
Q21. What is anomie theory?
ANSWER Anomie theory, originally developed by Emile Durkheim, refers to
a state of normlessness in society where the regulation of individual desires
breaks down. Durkheim linked anomie to high crime and suicide rates during
periods of rapid social change. Merton later adapted it into strain theory.
Q22. What is subcultural theory?
ANSWER Subcultural theory (Albert Cohen, 1955) argues that lower-class
youth who fail to meet middle-class standards develop their own subcultures
with alternative values. These subcultures invert conventional norms, making
criminal and delinquent behaviour a source of status and respect within the
group.
Q23. What is general strain theory (GST)?
ANSWER Robert Agnew's General Strain Theory (1992) expanded Merton's
strain theory by identifying multiple sources of strain: failure to achieve
positively valued goals; removal of positively valued stimuli (e.g., losing a job
or relationship); and presentation of negatively valued stimuli (e.g., abuse or
victimization). Strain leads to negative emotions that may lead to crime.
Q24. What is social disorganization theory?
ANSWER Social disorganization theory (Shaw and McKay) argues that
crime rates are high in certain areas not because of the people who live there,
but because of community characteristics such as poverty, residential
Page 4
