Pharmagology unit 6|Endocrine Hormones Insulin Glucagon
ADH Oxytocin GH ACTH TSH FSH LH Cortisol Aldosterone Thyroid
T3 T4 Levothyroxine Liothyronine Antithyroid Methimazole PTU
Radioactive Iodine Estrogen Progesterone Testosterone
Clomiphene PDE5 Inhibitors Bisphosphonates Sulfonylureas
Meglitinides Metformin Thiazolidinediones GLP-1 Agonists SGLT2
Inhibitors DPP-4 Inhibitors Proton Pump Inhibitors H2 Blockers
Antacids Laxatives Stool Softeners Antiemetics Antiflatulents
Exam Questions Verified and Provided with Complete A+ Graded
Rationales Latest Updated 2026
endocrine system
the body's slower regulatory system; Consists of glands that control many of the body's activities by
producing hormones that are released directly into the blood
hormones
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream,
and affect other tissues
diabetes mellitus (DM)
metabolic disorder caused by the absence or insufficient production of insulin secreted by the pancreas,
resulting in hyperglycemia and glucosuria
pancreatic alpha cells secrete
Glucagon increases blood glucose
,pancreatic beta cells secrete
insulin = reduces glucose in blood by getting cells to uptake it
Keto-Acidosis (DKA)
Diabetic Keto Acidosis= Condition seen in diabetes or starvation where ketone bodies (ketones) made
from gluconeogenesis creates build up in tissues and body fluids and cause metabolic acidosis.
*Associated most with type 1 DM.
DKA signs and symptoms
DKA usually develops slowly. Early symptoms include:
Being very thirsty. (polydipsia)
Urinating a lot more than usual.(polyuria)
If untreated, more severe symptoms can appear quickly, such as:
Fast, deep breathing.
Dry skin and mouth.
Flushed face.
Fruity-smelling breath.
Headache.
Muscle stiffness or aches.
Being very tired.
Nausea and vomiting.
Stomach pain.
Sometimes DKA is the first sign of diabetes in people who haven't yet been diagnosed.
leads to coma & death if untreated quickly enough
,Carbohydrate metabolism in the liver involves the processes of:
1. ______- the formation and storage of glycogen, a polysaccharide
2. _________- the conversion of glycogen into its essential nutrient, glucose; and the release of glucose
into the blood stream.
1- glycogenesis
2- glycolysis
Gluconeogenesis is the process in which ________.
glucose is formed from noncarbohydrate molecules, amino acids & fatty acids primarily
Hyperglycemia; define & S/S
elevated BGL, > 126mg/dL fasting. if greater than 600- coma/death
S/S= Polydipsia, polyuria, polyphagia, blurred vision, weakness, weight loss, syncope
hypoglycemia; define & S/S
low BGL < 70 mg/dL fasting. if < 50= insulin shock
S/S= Fast heartbeat.
Shaking.
Sweating.
Nervousness or anxiety.
Irritability or confusion.
Dizziness.
Hunger.
type 1 diabetes mellitus
, (aka= immune mediated/ insulin-dependent/ juvenile)
-no beta-cell production of insulin occurs= insulin dependent for life
-family hx of autoimmune dx
-antibodies
-10-20% of all diabetes (more caucasians)
-onset frequently <20 yr old
-DKA
type 1 diabetes mellitus S/S
onset= usually abrupt & severe
early: 3 polys, weight loss (ketosis), fatigue/weakness, rash
later: dehydration, change in LOC, vascular
type 2 diabetes mellitus
(aka= adult onset, ketosis resistant)
-body produces insufficient insulin or insulin resistance.
-obesity, family hx
-onset age= > 35-45, but now more diagnosed in teen years
-80-90% of diabetes (more non-caucasian)
-may/may not need insulin
-ketosis=rare
type 2 diabetes mellitus S/S
onset= more insidious
early: 3 polys, fatigue, blurred vision
later: similar to type 1
ADH Oxytocin GH ACTH TSH FSH LH Cortisol Aldosterone Thyroid
T3 T4 Levothyroxine Liothyronine Antithyroid Methimazole PTU
Radioactive Iodine Estrogen Progesterone Testosterone
Clomiphene PDE5 Inhibitors Bisphosphonates Sulfonylureas
Meglitinides Metformin Thiazolidinediones GLP-1 Agonists SGLT2
Inhibitors DPP-4 Inhibitors Proton Pump Inhibitors H2 Blockers
Antacids Laxatives Stool Softeners Antiemetics Antiflatulents
Exam Questions Verified and Provided with Complete A+ Graded
Rationales Latest Updated 2026
endocrine system
the body's slower regulatory system; Consists of glands that control many of the body's activities by
producing hormones that are released directly into the blood
hormones
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream,
and affect other tissues
diabetes mellitus (DM)
metabolic disorder caused by the absence or insufficient production of insulin secreted by the pancreas,
resulting in hyperglycemia and glucosuria
pancreatic alpha cells secrete
Glucagon increases blood glucose
,pancreatic beta cells secrete
insulin = reduces glucose in blood by getting cells to uptake it
Keto-Acidosis (DKA)
Diabetic Keto Acidosis= Condition seen in diabetes or starvation where ketone bodies (ketones) made
from gluconeogenesis creates build up in tissues and body fluids and cause metabolic acidosis.
*Associated most with type 1 DM.
DKA signs and symptoms
DKA usually develops slowly. Early symptoms include:
Being very thirsty. (polydipsia)
Urinating a lot more than usual.(polyuria)
If untreated, more severe symptoms can appear quickly, such as:
Fast, deep breathing.
Dry skin and mouth.
Flushed face.
Fruity-smelling breath.
Headache.
Muscle stiffness or aches.
Being very tired.
Nausea and vomiting.
Stomach pain.
Sometimes DKA is the first sign of diabetes in people who haven't yet been diagnosed.
leads to coma & death if untreated quickly enough
,Carbohydrate metabolism in the liver involves the processes of:
1. ______- the formation and storage of glycogen, a polysaccharide
2. _________- the conversion of glycogen into its essential nutrient, glucose; and the release of glucose
into the blood stream.
1- glycogenesis
2- glycolysis
Gluconeogenesis is the process in which ________.
glucose is formed from noncarbohydrate molecules, amino acids & fatty acids primarily
Hyperglycemia; define & S/S
elevated BGL, > 126mg/dL fasting. if greater than 600- coma/death
S/S= Polydipsia, polyuria, polyphagia, blurred vision, weakness, weight loss, syncope
hypoglycemia; define & S/S
low BGL < 70 mg/dL fasting. if < 50= insulin shock
S/S= Fast heartbeat.
Shaking.
Sweating.
Nervousness or anxiety.
Irritability or confusion.
Dizziness.
Hunger.
type 1 diabetes mellitus
, (aka= immune mediated/ insulin-dependent/ juvenile)
-no beta-cell production of insulin occurs= insulin dependent for life
-family hx of autoimmune dx
-antibodies
-10-20% of all diabetes (more caucasians)
-onset frequently <20 yr old
-DKA
type 1 diabetes mellitus S/S
onset= usually abrupt & severe
early: 3 polys, weight loss (ketosis), fatigue/weakness, rash
later: dehydration, change in LOC, vascular
type 2 diabetes mellitus
(aka= adult onset, ketosis resistant)
-body produces insufficient insulin or insulin resistance.
-obesity, family hx
-onset age= > 35-45, but now more diagnosed in teen years
-80-90% of diabetes (more non-caucasian)
-may/may not need insulin
-ketosis=rare
type 2 diabetes mellitus S/S
onset= more insidious
early: 3 polys, fatigue, blurred vision
later: similar to type 1
