Nursing and Pathophysiology Examination Covering Fluid Volume Imbalance,
Hypovolemia, Hypervolemia, Electrolyte Disorders, Sodium Potassium Calcium
Magnesium Phosphate Regulation, Hypernatremia, Hyponatremia,
Hyperkalemia, Hypokalemia, Hypercalcemia, Hypocalcemia, Hypomagnesemia,
Fluid Shifts and Third Spacing, Osmosis and Osmolality, IV Fluid Tonicity
Management, Isotonic Hypotonic Hypertonic Solutions, Oncotic Pressure and
Colloid Therapy, Acid Base Balance Regulation, Respiratory Acidosis, Respiratory
Alkalosis, Metabolic Acidosis, Metabolic Alkalosis, Arterial Blood Gas
Interpretation, Pain Physiology and Nociception, Acute and Chronic Pain
Assessment, Neuropathic Pain Syndromes, Multimodal Analgesic Therapy,
Opioid and NSAID Pharmacology, Nonpharmacologic Pain Management,
Gerontological Aging Theories, and Erikson Psychosocial Development Exam
Questions Verified and Provided with Complete A+ Graded Rationales Latest
Updated 2026
What is hypovolemia?
Fluid volume deficit
What are common causes of hypovolemia?
1. abnormal fluid loss
2. Inadequate fluid intake
3. Plasma to interstitial shift
What are clinical manifestations of hypovolemia?
hypotension, tachycardia, dizziness, weight loss, slow capillary refill, decreased skin turgor,
drowsiness, confusion
,What is the treatment of hypovolemia?
Replace water and electrolytes with oral intake and/or IV fluids
What is hypervolemia?
Fluid volume excess
What are causes of hypervolemia?
1. Excessive intake
2. Abnormal retention
3. Interstitial to plasma shift
What are clinical manifestations of hypervolemia?
JVD, Bounding pulse, hypertension, weight gain, edema, pulmonary edema, headache,
confusion
What is the treatment for hypervolemia?
restrict or remove fluid without causing electrolyte or osmolality imbalance
What are normal hemoglobin levels for males and females?
,1. Males: 14-18 gm/dL
2. Females: 12-16 gm/dL
What are normal hematocrit levels for males and females?
1. Males: 42-52%
2. Females: 37-47%
What are normal BUN levels?
10-20 mg/dL
What are normal BNP levels?
<100ng/L
What is a normal urine specific gravity level?
1.005-1.030
What are normal sodium levels?
135-145 mEq/L
What is hypernatremia?
, elevated serum sodium from water loss or sodium gain? (>145 mEq/L)
What is hyponatreia?
Low serum sodium from water gain or sodium loss (<135 mEq/L)
What are common causes of hypernatremia?
1. Lack of water intake
2. Excessive sodium intake
3. Lack of ADH
4. Excessive water loss
What are manifestations of hypernatremia?
SALT
1. Skin flushed
2. Agitated
3. Lethargy
4. Thirst
5. Seizures
6. Coma
How do you manage hypernatremia?
1. If water deficit: replace fluid orally or IV (isotonic fluid)
Hypovolemia, Hypervolemia, Electrolyte Disorders, Sodium Potassium Calcium
Magnesium Phosphate Regulation, Hypernatremia, Hyponatremia,
Hyperkalemia, Hypokalemia, Hypercalcemia, Hypocalcemia, Hypomagnesemia,
Fluid Shifts and Third Spacing, Osmosis and Osmolality, IV Fluid Tonicity
Management, Isotonic Hypotonic Hypertonic Solutions, Oncotic Pressure and
Colloid Therapy, Acid Base Balance Regulation, Respiratory Acidosis, Respiratory
Alkalosis, Metabolic Acidosis, Metabolic Alkalosis, Arterial Blood Gas
Interpretation, Pain Physiology and Nociception, Acute and Chronic Pain
Assessment, Neuropathic Pain Syndromes, Multimodal Analgesic Therapy,
Opioid and NSAID Pharmacology, Nonpharmacologic Pain Management,
Gerontological Aging Theories, and Erikson Psychosocial Development Exam
Questions Verified and Provided with Complete A+ Graded Rationales Latest
Updated 2026
What is hypovolemia?
Fluid volume deficit
What are common causes of hypovolemia?
1. abnormal fluid loss
2. Inadequate fluid intake
3. Plasma to interstitial shift
What are clinical manifestations of hypovolemia?
hypotension, tachycardia, dizziness, weight loss, slow capillary refill, decreased skin turgor,
drowsiness, confusion
,What is the treatment of hypovolemia?
Replace water and electrolytes with oral intake and/or IV fluids
What is hypervolemia?
Fluid volume excess
What are causes of hypervolemia?
1. Excessive intake
2. Abnormal retention
3. Interstitial to plasma shift
What are clinical manifestations of hypervolemia?
JVD, Bounding pulse, hypertension, weight gain, edema, pulmonary edema, headache,
confusion
What is the treatment for hypervolemia?
restrict or remove fluid without causing electrolyte or osmolality imbalance
What are normal hemoglobin levels for males and females?
,1. Males: 14-18 gm/dL
2. Females: 12-16 gm/dL
What are normal hematocrit levels for males and females?
1. Males: 42-52%
2. Females: 37-47%
What are normal BUN levels?
10-20 mg/dL
What are normal BNP levels?
<100ng/L
What is a normal urine specific gravity level?
1.005-1.030
What are normal sodium levels?
135-145 mEq/L
What is hypernatremia?
, elevated serum sodium from water loss or sodium gain? (>145 mEq/L)
What is hyponatreia?
Low serum sodium from water gain or sodium loss (<135 mEq/L)
What are common causes of hypernatremia?
1. Lack of water intake
2. Excessive sodium intake
3. Lack of ADH
4. Excessive water loss
What are manifestations of hypernatremia?
SALT
1. Skin flushed
2. Agitated
3. Lethargy
4. Thirst
5. Seizures
6. Coma
How do you manage hypernatremia?
1. If water deficit: replace fluid orally or IV (isotonic fluid)
