Human Physiology and Musculoskeletal Pathophysiology: Examination of
Mitochondrial ATP Production, Endoplasmic Reticulum Function, Homeostasis,
Hypertrophy and Atrophy, Ischemia, Objective and Subjective Data, Epinephrine
and Renin Regulation, Edema and Fluid Balance, Osmosis, Diffusion, Active
Transport, Immunity Mechanisms (Active, Passive, Acquired, Innate),
Compartment Syndrome, Osteoarthritis, Osteoporosis, Kyphosis, Lordosis,
Scoliosis, Osteosarcoma, Stress and Pathologic Fractures, Dislocation,
Osteomyelitis, Amputation, Sprain, Fibromyalgia, Osteogenesis Imperfecta,
Developmental Hip Dysplasia, Ankylosing Spondylitis, Paget’s Disease, Disc
Herniation, Rickets, Osteomalacia, Myasthenia Gravis, and Scleroderma Exam
Questions Verified and Provided with Complete A+ Graded Rationales Latest
Updated 2026
ATP production/cellular respiration, powerhouse of the cell
function of mitochondria
That portion of the endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes.
Rough ER
That portion of the endoplasmic reticulum that is free of ribosomes.
Smooth ER
,A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of
body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level
Homeostasis
increase in muscle/tissue size, excessive development
Hypertrophy
the wasting away of a body organ or tissue; any progressive decline or failure; to waste away
atrophy
an inadequate blood supply to an organ or part of the body, especially the heart muscles.
Ischemia
Any observations made by using your senses (pts. blood pressure, physical findings, and lab
values)
S/S of Objective Data
Any symptoms pt. complains of, what the pt. feels (pain)
S/S of Subjective Data
,Neurotransmitter secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress. Also known as
adrenaline.
Epinephrine
hormone secreted by the kidney; it raises blood pressure by influencing vasoconstriction
(narrowing of blood vessels)
Renin
-reduced concentration of plasma proteins
-increased permeability of capillary wall
-increased venous pressure
-blockage of lymph vessels
What causes edema?
edema, dysnpea (trouble breathing), hyptertension (high bp), JVD, pulse increase and bounding,
weight increase
Signs and symptoms of fluid excess
Dry mucous membranes, decreased skin turgor, Low BP, Low pulse, fatigue, Increased HCT,
decreased mental function, confusion, and loss of consciousness
Signs and symptoms of dehydration
, - muscle twitches/tetany
- hyperactive DTRs
- positive Chvostek's sign (tapping on the facial nerve triggering facial twitching)
- positive Trousseau's sign (hand/finger spasms with sustained blood pressure cuff inflation)
- seizures
S/S of hypocalcemia
Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane
Osmosis
Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration.
Diffusion
Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration
difference
active transport
cell shrinks and can die
Effect of hypertonic solution
cell swells and can burst
Mitochondrial ATP Production, Endoplasmic Reticulum Function, Homeostasis,
Hypertrophy and Atrophy, Ischemia, Objective and Subjective Data, Epinephrine
and Renin Regulation, Edema and Fluid Balance, Osmosis, Diffusion, Active
Transport, Immunity Mechanisms (Active, Passive, Acquired, Innate),
Compartment Syndrome, Osteoarthritis, Osteoporosis, Kyphosis, Lordosis,
Scoliosis, Osteosarcoma, Stress and Pathologic Fractures, Dislocation,
Osteomyelitis, Amputation, Sprain, Fibromyalgia, Osteogenesis Imperfecta,
Developmental Hip Dysplasia, Ankylosing Spondylitis, Paget’s Disease, Disc
Herniation, Rickets, Osteomalacia, Myasthenia Gravis, and Scleroderma Exam
Questions Verified and Provided with Complete A+ Graded Rationales Latest
Updated 2026
ATP production/cellular respiration, powerhouse of the cell
function of mitochondria
That portion of the endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes.
Rough ER
That portion of the endoplasmic reticulum that is free of ribosomes.
Smooth ER
,A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of
body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level
Homeostasis
increase in muscle/tissue size, excessive development
Hypertrophy
the wasting away of a body organ or tissue; any progressive decline or failure; to waste away
atrophy
an inadequate blood supply to an organ or part of the body, especially the heart muscles.
Ischemia
Any observations made by using your senses (pts. blood pressure, physical findings, and lab
values)
S/S of Objective Data
Any symptoms pt. complains of, what the pt. feels (pain)
S/S of Subjective Data
,Neurotransmitter secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress. Also known as
adrenaline.
Epinephrine
hormone secreted by the kidney; it raises blood pressure by influencing vasoconstriction
(narrowing of blood vessels)
Renin
-reduced concentration of plasma proteins
-increased permeability of capillary wall
-increased venous pressure
-blockage of lymph vessels
What causes edema?
edema, dysnpea (trouble breathing), hyptertension (high bp), JVD, pulse increase and bounding,
weight increase
Signs and symptoms of fluid excess
Dry mucous membranes, decreased skin turgor, Low BP, Low pulse, fatigue, Increased HCT,
decreased mental function, confusion, and loss of consciousness
Signs and symptoms of dehydration
, - muscle twitches/tetany
- hyperactive DTRs
- positive Chvostek's sign (tapping on the facial nerve triggering facial twitching)
- positive Trousseau's sign (hand/finger spasms with sustained blood pressure cuff inflation)
- seizures
S/S of hypocalcemia
Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane
Osmosis
Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration.
Diffusion
Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration
difference
active transport
cell shrinks and can die
Effect of hypertonic solution
cell swells and can burst
