1. The Foundation: Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are compounds containing carbon and hydrogen only.
Homologous Series: A "family" of chemicals with the same functional group, similar chemical
properties, and the same general formula.
Saturated: Only single bonds (Alkanes).
Unsaturated: Contains at least one $C=C$ double bond (Alkenes).
Alkanes ($C_nH_{2n+2}$)
Properties: Generally unreactive (stable single bonds).
Reaction (Combustion): Burn in oxygen to produce $CO_2$ and $H_2O$.
Reaction (Substitution): React with Halogens (like $Cl_2$) only in the presence of UV Light.
Alkenes ($C_nH_{2n}$)
Functional Group: $C=C$ double bond.
Test: Shake with Bromine Water. Orange $\rightarrow$ Colorless (Addition reaction).
Cracking: Large alkanes are broken into smaller alkanes and alkenes using heat and a catalyst
($Al_2O_3$).
2. Alcohols & Carboxylic Acids
Alcohols ($-OH$)
General Formula: $C_nH_{2n+1}OH$.
Production of Ethanol:
1. Fermentation: Yeast + Sugar $\rightarrow$ Ethanol + $CO_2$ (Warm, anaerobic).
2. Hydration of Ethene: Ethene + Steam $\xrightarrow{H_3PO_4 \text{ cat}}$ Ethanol.
Carboxylic Acids ($-COOH$)
Example: Ethanoic Acid ($CH_3COOH$).
Properties: Weak acids (pH 3–5). React with metals/carbonates to form salts (e.g., Sodium
Ethanoate).
Oxidation: Alcohols can be oxidized into carboxylic acids using Acidified Potassium
Manganate(VII) (Purple $\rightarrow$ Colorless).
3. Esters: Synthesis & Naming
Esters are made by reacting an Alcohol and a Carboxylic Acid.
Reaction: $\text{Alcohol} + \text{Acid} \rightleftharpoons \text{Ester} + \text{Water}$
(Condensation).
Naming:
o First part: From Alcohol (ends in -yl).
o Second part: From Acid (ends in -oate).
o Example: Methanol + Propanoic Acid $\rightarrow$ Methyl Propanoate.
Hydrocarbons are compounds containing carbon and hydrogen only.
Homologous Series: A "family" of chemicals with the same functional group, similar chemical
properties, and the same general formula.
Saturated: Only single bonds (Alkanes).
Unsaturated: Contains at least one $C=C$ double bond (Alkenes).
Alkanes ($C_nH_{2n+2}$)
Properties: Generally unreactive (stable single bonds).
Reaction (Combustion): Burn in oxygen to produce $CO_2$ and $H_2O$.
Reaction (Substitution): React with Halogens (like $Cl_2$) only in the presence of UV Light.
Alkenes ($C_nH_{2n}$)
Functional Group: $C=C$ double bond.
Test: Shake with Bromine Water. Orange $\rightarrow$ Colorless (Addition reaction).
Cracking: Large alkanes are broken into smaller alkanes and alkenes using heat and a catalyst
($Al_2O_3$).
2. Alcohols & Carboxylic Acids
Alcohols ($-OH$)
General Formula: $C_nH_{2n+1}OH$.
Production of Ethanol:
1. Fermentation: Yeast + Sugar $\rightarrow$ Ethanol + $CO_2$ (Warm, anaerobic).
2. Hydration of Ethene: Ethene + Steam $\xrightarrow{H_3PO_4 \text{ cat}}$ Ethanol.
Carboxylic Acids ($-COOH$)
Example: Ethanoic Acid ($CH_3COOH$).
Properties: Weak acids (pH 3–5). React with metals/carbonates to form salts (e.g., Sodium
Ethanoate).
Oxidation: Alcohols can be oxidized into carboxylic acids using Acidified Potassium
Manganate(VII) (Purple $\rightarrow$ Colorless).
3. Esters: Synthesis & Naming
Esters are made by reacting an Alcohol and a Carboxylic Acid.
Reaction: $\text{Alcohol} + \text{Acid} \rightleftharpoons \text{Ester} + \text{Water}$
(Condensation).
Naming:
o First part: From Alcohol (ends in -yl).
o Second part: From Acid (ends in -oate).
o Example: Methanol + Propanoic Acid $\rightarrow$ Methyl Propanoate.
