PSYC140 / PSYC 140 Module 2 Exam | Latest 2026/2027 Portage Learning | Developmental Psychology | Verified Questions & Answers | Grade A | 100% Correct

PSYC140 / PSYC 140 Module 2 Exam | Latest 2026/2027 Portage Learning | Developmental Psychology | Verified Questions & Answers | Grade A | 100% Correct Q: Zeke's father is a volleyball coach and Zeke grew up wanting to play volleyball. In fifth grade, he asked his father to show him how to play and teach him basic skills. By the time that he reaches junior high, he's skilled enough to make the varsity volleyball team. What type of genotype- environment interaction best explains Zeke's sports success? Answer Active Q: Jillian's mother is a librarian and her father is a high school English teacher. When Jillian began elementary school, her teacher found her reading fourth-grade level books in the school library. The teacher then encouraged Jillian to read high quality fiction books. By high school, Jillian is one of her school's top English students. What type of genotype-environment interaction might best explain how this occurred? Answer Evocative Q: Dan's parents both perform in the city orchestra. When Dan was three they bought him his first violin and began giving him music lessons. Dan shows early promise as a musician. What type of genotype-environment interaction best explains Dan's musical prowess? Answer Passive Q: Jillian's mother is a librarian and her father is a high school English teacher. When Jillian began elementary school, her teacher found her reading fourth- grade level books in the school library. The teacher then encouraged Jillian to read high quality fiction books. By high school, Jillian is one of her school's top English students. What type of genotype-environment interaction might best explain how this occurred? Q: In which type of genotype-environment interaction does the child take very little role in personally choosing and seeking out environments that foster a particular interest Answer Passive Q: Which research design would best investigate the everyday behavior of children in a middle school math class? Answer Naturalistic Observation Q: A researcher follows a group of children over ten years to assess socioemotional development. Which research design is the researcher using? Answer Longitudinal Q: A doctor might recommend the use of a/an _________________ drug during childbirth if there is a need to stimulate labor contractions. Answer oxytocic Q: Place the following prenatal events in order from earliest to latest - Answer Lanugo is nearly gone Basic spinal cord begins to form Heartbeat can be heard Basic spinal cord begins to form Heartbeat can be heard Lanugo is nearly gone Q: What is Lamaze? Answer The use of breathing techniques and education to control pain and fear Q: A/An _______________ is an agent that causes birth defect. Answer teratogen Q: T or F? The risk of miscarriage during amniocenteses is 1 in 300 Answer TRUE Q: When are a developing baby's organs most susceptible. Be specific. Answer during organogenesis Q: What is the term for the prenatal period of organ formation? Answer Organogenesis Q: Which of the following are typical reasons for undertaking Chorionic Villus Sampling? Answer Maternal age (35 or younger) Desire to confirm and date the pregnancy Family history of a genetic disease All of the above Family history of a genetic disease Q: During which trimester does spinal cord formation begin? Answer First Q: What are the advantage and disadvantages of naturalistic observations? Describe one advantage and one disadvantage. Answer An advantage would be that researchers can observe participant's realistic, natural behavior A disadvantage would be that researchers can only observe the behavior, no interview is conducted so subject can't share thoughts. Q: What are the advantages and disadvantages of conducting a correlational study? Describe one advantage and disadvantage Answer Correlation study advantage is to see if two variables are related together and the degree of correlation will tell you how strongly they go together A disadvantage with correlation is that is doesn't tell you what actually changes therefore it can be limiting when trying to gather information on what the data can tell you Advantages should include the following: helps investigate which variables relate together, addresses key issues in social sciences. Disadvantage: correlation does not equal causation. Q: For the following scenarios, identify whether the study's design is cross-sectional or longitudinal. A) Martha's children participated in a study from the time they were in preschool until they reached middle school B) A researcher is studying a group of baby boomers to see whether, as they age, they become increasingly religious C) teenagers in a study are interviewed regarding who are the most popular peers in their grade Answer A) Longitudinal B) Longitudinal C) Cross-Sectional Q: Short essay questions should be answered in complete sentences. What are the two key features of an experiment that enable it to determine causality? Name these features and then describe them Answer Tight controls with the setting, participants and other variables that could be in the study The researcher has access to manipulate the variable/ factor that can have an influence Q: Passive Interaction Answer parents can provide both the genetic predisposition as well as a nurturing context to foster certain qualities in a child. Example: a musical family provides many opportunities for musical development. This is considered passive due to the child's role being a passive one (a genotype is the genetic make-up of an individual). Q: Evocative Interaction Answer parents can provide the genetic predisposition for the child to then evoke certain reactions in others. In short, our own behaviors may play a role in our development. Example: a very social child will affect others around her to behave in certain ways, which will then influence her own development. This child may develop a large social group and be viewed favorably by teachers who value strong interpersonal skills. Q: Active Interaction Answer parents may provide a genetic predisposition that results in the child actively seeking out environmental conditions that foster the development of certain qualities. Example: a musically gifted child may single-mindedly pursue musical outlets regardless of whether others encourage him or her to do so. Answer the following Essay - Answer Describe in detail the three stags of childbirth as well as postpartum. In your answer include the following: names for each stage general length of time for each, and key events that occur during eat stage Stage 1 is dilation and effacement of cervix Stage 2 is delivery of baby Stage 3 is delivery of placenta Stage 4 is postpartum Childbirth Stage 1 Answer dilation and effacement of cervix. Longest stage, begins at onset of true labor and ends when cervix is completely dilated. Comprised of early labor and active labor. Early labor last 8- 12 hours during this time contracts begin every 5 to 30 minutes and last 30-45 seconds. Sometimes a woman's water breaks (amniotic sac rupture). Active labor is 3-5 hours contractions are every 3- 5 min and last about 45 to 60 seconds. Childbirth Stage 2 Answer delivery of baby. Begins after cervix is dilated the full 10 cm and ends with delivery of baby. May last 20 min to 2 hours. Strong urge to push occurs with strong sense of pressure on rectum. Baby's head will crown or become visible. Health provider will direct how and when to push. Childbirth Stage 3 Answer Stage 3 is delivery of placenta or afterbirth. This typically takes 5-10 mins. Contractions can start up again as placenta begins to separate from the uterine wall so it can be delivered. Normal to experience shaking or shivering Childbirth Stage 4 Answer postpartum. This stage lasts approximately 6 weeks. The mother's body begins to heal and she emotionally adjusts from childbearing to childrearing. Biological adjustments include involution which is where the uterus returns to normal size going from 2-3 lbs back to 2-3 ounces. Breastfeeding begins as well. Numerous Psychological adjustments begin such as coordination of parent's and baby's sleep schedule and bonding with baby. Compare and contrast longitudinal and cross-sectional studies. Answer A longitudinal design enables researchers to observe change over time as well as which qualities in an individual remain stable, while a cross-sectional design does not address either of these very well. However, it is generally more difficult to conduct longitudinal researcher due to the extensive time required. A cross-sectional study simply investigates a cross-section of a population at once. Both study approaches, however, can be used to answer questions about certain aspects of lifespan development. For the five research methods discussed in this module (naturalistic observation through experiments), write out the following: 1) What are the advantages of choosing this research design? 2) What are the disadvantages? 3) Summarize the main reason why the study design might be chosen. Answer Naturalistic Observation Can observe how people act naturally. Researchers can only access the information that they directly observe. The child may act differently in other settings or at other times. A good design for obtaining detailed information on a person’s behaviors. Case Study Provides rich and detailed information on one individual. May not be applicable to other cases. Particularly helpful for showcasing an unusual case to spur additional discussion. Survey Can obtain a large amount of information with a large sample. People may not accurately report on their own thoughts and behaviors! The most straightforward way to know what someone thinks is to simply ask them, as in a survey or interview. Correlational study Gives concise summary on how two variables relate to one another. Correlation does not equal causation; a correlational study doesn’t tell what actually caused any change. Popular study design, shows how different aspects of human nature relate to other aspects. Experiment Researchers can directly observe a manipulated variable effecting change. People may act unnaturally in experimental settings. A researcher seeking to know what causes something else should choose this design. Describe the three types of prenatal tests described in this module, including the purposes and problems associated with each. Ultrasound directs high frequency soundwaves into the mother's abdomen to create an image of the developing baby. Ultrasound can show the position of the baby, gender, gestational age, and some brain defects. Noninvasive and generally viewed to be safe, a general rule is to have fewer than five ultrasounds during pregnancy due to a possible risk of low birthweight. Amniocentesis involves removing a sample of amniotic fluid through a syringe. The fluid is then tested for chromosomal and genetic abnormalities. However, there is a risk of miscarriage with amniocentesis. Chorionic villus sampling involves inserting a tube and removing tissue from the end of one or more chorionic villi. CVS is used to detect genetic abnormalities, but there is a risk of miscarriage and limb deformity Reflect: What are your thoughts about the use of the various prenatal diagnostic tests? For a patient predisposed to genetic abnormalities they ca be effective tools in identifying conditions early but for a healthy expecting mother it can expose her and the unborn baby to unnecessary risks Compare and contrast the three types of genotype-environment interactions discussed in this module. Passive genotype-environment interaction: the child's role is passive; the genes passed along by the parents, as well as the environmental stimulation, work together to bring out certain qualities in the child. Evocative genotype-environment interaction: genes passed along by the parents result in the child behaving in ways that evoke particular responses in others, resulting in environmental stimulation of certain qualities in the child. Active genotype-environment interaction: genes passed along by the parents result in the child actively seeking out environmental stimulation for certain qualities. Describe precisely when the germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods occur. The Germinal Period takes place during the first two weeks after conception. The Embryonic Period is 2-8 weeks after conception, and the Fetal Period begins two months after conception and lasts approximately seven months. If a teratogen is introduced during the first trimester of pregnancy, what parts of the baby's body might be harmed? Since these are systems under major development in the first trimester, they are the most likely to be affected: spinal cord, brain, all major organs, limbs, face A friend of yours says that she smoked throughout pregnancy and her baby is fine. "So," she concludes," nicotine doesn't harm babies." How would you respond, based on data on teratogens? Nicotine is a known teratogen that when consumed while pregnant can cause miscarriage, preterm birth, low birth weight, learning difficulties, and SIDS. She likely didn't experience one of these possible consequences due to low susceptibility to the teratogen. Since every women is different, she is lucky her baby was unharmed but another women could experience serious complications so it is important to not expose the baby to any teratogen. It would also be interesting to see if the child truly was unharmed as nicotine use during pregnancy can cause learning disabilities What are the three stages of childbirth? Stage 1: Dilation and Effacement of Cervix. Stage 2: Delivery of the Baby. Stage 3: Delivery of Placenta. What major adjustments take place during the postpartum period? Biological adjustments include involution, not to mention sleep adjustments to combat fatigue as well as overall healing. Numerous psychological adjustments also occur, such as coordinating the parents’ and baby’s schedules, readjusting social relationships, and bonding with the baby Jillian's Mother is a librarian and her father is a high school english teacher. When Jillian began elementary school, Her teacher found her reading 4th grade level books in the school library. The teacher then encouraged Jillian to read high quality fiction books. By high school, Jillian is one of her school's top english students. What type of genotype-environment interaction might best explain how this occurred? Evocative Dan's parents both perform in the city orchestra. When dan was 3, they bought him his first violin and began giving him music lessons. Dan shows early promise as a musician. What type of genotype-environment interaction best explains Dan's musical prowess? Passive What type of study would best address the following question: Do adults become more emotionally mature with age? Correlational study During involution, a mother's uterus returns to its normal size, reducing from an average of _________ pounds at the end of the pregnancy to ________ ounces. 2-3 pounds, 2-3 ounces Place the following prenatal events in order, from earliest to latest: - eyebrows form -responsive to light -swallowing is possible - swallowing is possible -eyebrows form -responsive to light What is the current age of viability 22 to 26 weeks What is the term for prenatal period of organ formation? Organogenesis Major organs form during the _______ period of prenatal development. Embryonic For the following scenario, identify whether the study's design is cross sectional or longitudinal: Martha's children participate in a study from the time that they were in preschool until they reached middle school. Longitudinal For the following scenario, identify whether the study's design is cross sectional or longitudinal: A researcher is studying a group of baby boomers to see whether, as they age, they become increasingly religious. Longitudinal For the following scenario, identify whether the study's design is cross sectional or longitudinal: Teenagers in a study are interviewed regarding who are the most popular peers in their grade. Cross-sectional Delivery of the placenta occurs during what stage of childbirth? third stage Delivery of the baby occurs during which stage of childbirth? second stage fine hair that covers the top portion of a baby in utero is known as... Lanugo A doctor might recommend the use of a/an _______ drug during childbirth if there is a need to stimulate labor contractions. Oxytocics An epidural is an example of what type of drug? Anesthesia What type of drug relives pain and include narcotics, barbituates and tranquilizers? Analgesics Place the following prenatal events in order, from earliest to latest: -heartbeat can be heard with a stethoscope -Lanugo is nearly gone - basic spinal cord begins to develop - Basic spinal cord begins to develop - Heartbeat can be heard with a stethoscope - lanugo is nearly gone When does the embryonic period begin? 2 weeks after conception during what trimester is a heartbeat detectable using ultrasound? First trimester Why might a researcher decide to use a survey as the research method of choice? Give 2 reasons. can be done anonymously and Large sample size Place the following prenatal events in order, from earliest to latest: -embryonic -fetal -germinal - Germinal -Embryonic -Fetal What is one advantage and one disadvantage of naturalistic observation? Advantage: Natural behavior Disadvantage: Can only observe behavior not thoughts What is a teratogen? environmental agents that interfere with prenatal growth and can also cause birth defects what are the key variables governing the influence of teratogens? Baby's gestational age, amount and susceptibility Name one teratogen and its possible consequences Nicotine, Possible consequences are miscarriage, preterm birth, low birth weight, hearing difficulties and SIDS Ultrasound a sonogram that directs high frequency sound waves into the mother's abdomen. The echo from the sound waves are then used to create an image of the developing baby that can show the baby's position, gestational age and some brain defects. Less than 5 per pregnancy Amniocentesis A syringe removes a sample of amniotic fluid that is ten tested for chromosomal and genetic abnormalities. Performed between the 15th and 20th week of pregnancy. (1 in 300 will miscarry) Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS) a tube is inserted and removes tissue from the end of one or more chorionic villi and is used to detect genetic abnormalities. Performed between the 10th and 12th weeks after conception. Highest risk of miscarriage and risk of limb deformity Delivery of the placenta occurs during Stage ______ of childbirth. Three Delivery of the baby occurs during Stage _____ of childbirth two Fine hair that covers the top portion of a baby in utero is known as ______ lanugo A doctor might recommend the use of a/an ________ drug during childbirth if there is a need to stimulate labor contractions. oxytocic An epidural is an example of what type of drug? aneshesia Place the following prenatal events in order, from earliest to latest. Basic spinal cord begins to develop. Heartbeat can be heard with a stethoscope. Lanugo is nearly gone. Basic spinal cord - heartbeat - lanugo disappears When does the Embryonic period begin? 2 weeks after conception During which trimester is a heartbeat detectable using utrasound? first Martha's children participated in a study from the time that they were in preschool until they reached middle school. longitudinal A researcher is studying a group of Baby Boomers to see whether, as they age, they become increasingly religious. longitudinal Teenagers in a study are interviewed regarding who are the most popular peers in their grade. Cross-sectional Why might a researcher decide to use a survey as the research method of choice? Give two reasons. Obtain large sample Study additional options Efficiency Cost Effective Place the following prenatal stages in order, from earliest to latest: Embryonic, Fetal, Germinal. germinal - embryonic - fetal What are the advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observations? Describe one advantage and one disadvantage. Advantage: observe participants realistically with natural behaviors Disadvantage: Can only observe behaviors, not thoughts. The module discussed three key variables that influence the effect of a teratogen. A) Describe these three variables. B) Then, name an example of a teratogen. C) Finally, come up with a realistic scenario (that is, make up a story) about a mother and child for whom this teratogen might play a role, and describe how the three key variables influence the effect of that specific teratogen in this specific example. A. Age/ Gestation at which the baby is exposed to the teratogen. If it is at a vital point when the organs are developing the baby is at risk at more harm. The amount of teratogen the baby is exposed to. The more exposure correlations to the more damage to the baby. The susceptibility of a teratogen that is present with the mother may/ may not pass to her child. B. Nictone C. A mother smoking nicotine during her pregnancy. During the stages and gestational phases she smoked may or may not have an effect on the baby. The amount of nicotine she uses may effect the baby. The susceptibility of the mother to nicotine may pass on to the child. The lasting effects on nicotine on the child range from miscarriage, low birth weight, SIDS, development problems, premature birth, learning disabilities. Zeke's father is a volleyball coach and Zeke grew up wanting to play volleyball. In fifth grade, he asked his father to show him how to play and teach him basic skills. By the time that he reaches junior high, he's skilled enough to make the varsity volleyball team. What type of genotypeenvironment interaction best explains Zeke's sports success? Active In which type of genotype-environment interaction does the child take very little role in personally choosing and seeking out environments that will foster a particular interest? Passive Which research design would best address the following question: Are age and wisdom related to one another? correlational study True or false? Smoking during pregnancy can cause a miscarriage. True What is the current age of viability? 22-26 weeks During which trimester do hair and nails typically form? second What are the advantages and disadvantages of conducting an experiment? Give one advantage and one disadvantage. Advantage: observe directly/ determine causality Disadvantage: human error/ hawthorne effect (subject acting unnaturally) What are the two key features of an experiment that enable it to determine causality? Name these features and then describe them Manipulation - the experimenter administering something to the participants Control - controlling the setting and possible variables. Jillian's mother is a librarian and her father is a high school English teacher. When Jillian began elementary school, her teacher found her reading fourth-grade level books in the school library. The teacher then encouraged Jillian to read high quality fiction books. By high school, Jillian is one of her school's top English students. What type of genotype-environment interaction might best explain how this occurred? evocative Dan's parents both perform in the city orchestra. When Dan was three, they bought him his first violin and began giving him music lessons. Dan shows early promise as a musician. What type of genotype-environment interaction best explains Dan's musical prowess? Passive What type of study would best address the following question: Do adults become more emotionally mature with age? Correlational Study During involution, a mother's uterus returns to its normal size, reducing from an average of _______________ pounds at the end of the pregnancy to ________________ ounces. 2-3 lbs; 2-3 oz Place the following prenatal events in order, from earliest to latest. Eyebrows form. Responsive to light. Swallowing is possible. Swallowing - eyebrows - light What is the term for the prenatal period of organ formation? organogenesis Major organs form during the __________ period of prenatal development. First trimester What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a survey design? Describe one advantage and one disadvantage. Advantage - efficient, cost effective, large sample Disadvantage - not truthful/ inaccurate Grows up to 3 in first trimester weights about 1 oz by end first trimester begins to develop spinal cord, nervous system, gastrointestinal system, heart and lungs first trimester heart beat detectible by 8 weeks first trimester can move arms, legs, fingers toes first trimester brain is forming by 8 weeks first trimester can smile, frown, suck, swallow first trimester can move and respond to touch by the second month first trimester can tell gender around 12 weeks 1st trimester grows 14 in 2nd trimester weights 1 lbs 2nd trimester skin is protected by vernix (milky substance) and lanugo (fine hairs) 2nd trimester heartbeat can be heard with stetha 2nd trimester eyes open by 24 weeks 2nd trimester can suck thumb, has strong grip 2nd trimester has nails, hair, eyelashes, eyebrows 2nd semester can roll over; mother can feel movement 2nd semester can feel pain 2nd semester grows up to 19 in 3rd trimester average weight is 6-7 lbs at 38 weeks 3rd trimester lanugo is nearly gone 3rd trimester age og viability is 22-26 weeks 3rd trimester usually assumes upside-down position 3rd trimester bones in skull are soft and pliable 3rd trimester body fat is continually being added 3rd trimester mother feels less movement at the end 3rd trimester Very responsive to stimulation such as touch, sound, light 3rd trimester Nicotine miscarriage, preterm birth, low birth weight, learning difficulties, SIDS Alcohol fetal alcohol syndrome, cognitive and emotional problems X-rays Gene mutation, possible deformity Herpes miscarriage, low birth weight, intellectual disability toxoplasmosis eye and brain damage malnutrition nervous system damage, respiratory illness, poor health stress miscarriage prematurity, low birth weight, respiratory illness, birth defect advanced maternal age Chromosomal defects, miscarriage, infertility 8-9 weeks Thumb sucking can be observed 22-26 weeks If born prematurely, baby can survive 30 weeks Breathing motions can be observed 20 weeks can respond to sound 7-8 weeks arteries and veins of heart are complete 1. Longitudinal Study Design -Research in lifespan development -involves following individuals over a long period of time with multiple assessment points -enables researchers to tease out whether a phenomenon is due to developmental change (the person becoming older, more mature, etc.) or something inherent in the individual -explore what qualities change over time and what qualities remain stable -longer the study, the more time and resources are needed. Also, it is difficult for people to commit multiple years (or decades) of their lives to a single study. advantages of using a longitudinal design: enables researchers to tease out whether a phenomenon is due to developmental change (the person becoming older, more mature, etc.) or something inherent in the individual disadvantages of using a longitudinal design: long study more time and resources are needed difficult for people to commit multiple years (or decades) of their lives to a single study. 2. Cross-sectional study compares different age groups at the same time. groups are compared to each other subjects are not followed over time doesn't adequately observe how the children developed examines how they are currently more time-efficient participants may be less likely to drop out of the study disadvantages of cross-sectional studies subjects are not followed over time design doesn't adequately observe how the children developed--- it simply examines how they are currently Advantages of cross-sectional studies more time-efficient participants may be less likely to drop out of the study Cross-Sectional Study types A. Naturalistic Observation B. Case study C. Survey/ Interview D. Correlational Research E. Experiments A. Naturalistic Observation (Cross-Sectional Study types) involves: observing a research subject outside of a research setting in a more natural location Example of A. Naturalistic Observation (Cross-Sectional Study types) Jean Piaget routinely observed his children at play at home. Today, researchers may conduct naturalistic observations in school settings. B. Case study (Cross-Sectional Study types) involves: direct observation of research subjects interviewing the participant in great detail **is a very detailed examination of an individual. C. Survey/ Interview (Cross-Sectional Study types) involves: Surveys ask questions about attitudes, opinions, and the frequencies of certain behaviors administered anonymously, such as via the Internet or mail, or in person If administered in person, take place in an interview format. D. Correlational Research (Cross-Sectional Study types) involves: knowing how two variables, or things, relate together use statistics to indicate the degree and direction of the relationship degree of the relation tells you how strong the correlation is direction indicates whether both variables increase together (positive relationship) or of one variable increases, the other decreases (a negative, or inverse, relationship). Example of D. Correlational Research (Cross-Sectional Study types) do the number of friendships that people have increase with age? An example of a negative association or relationship would be as one gets older, one throws fewer temper tantrums. E. Experiments (Cross-Sectional Study types) researcher tightly controls the setting, participants and variables researcher manipulates a factor that is believed to have some influence experimental study that can adequately discern whether the manipulated variable caused a change what is unique about E. Experiments (Cross-Sectional Study types)? experimental study that can adequately discern whether the manipulated variable caused a change. No other study design allows such an observation to be made, since random assignment to groups and manipulation of an experimental variable are typically absent from other study designs. Biological Beginnings and Prenatal Development A. Prenatal Diagnostic Tests --1. Ultrasound --2. Amniocentesis --3. Chorionic Villus Sampling B. Genetic-Environment Interactions --1. Passive Genotype-Environment Interaction --2. Evocative genotype-environment Interaction --3. Active Genotype-Environment Interaction C. Prenatal Development --1. Trimesters --2. Teratogens D. Childbirth --1. Stages of Childbirth --2. Strategies of Childbirth A. Prenatal Diagnostic Tests allow parents and health care professionals to discern whether a baby is developing normally A. Prenatal Diagnostic Tests include --1. Ultrasound --2. Amniocentesis --3. Chorionic Villus Sampling --1. Ultrasound directs high frequency sound waves into mother's abdomen echo from waves used to create an image of developing baby shows position of the baby, gender, gestational age, and some brain defects. Noninvasive/ safe why is it a general rule to have fewer than five ultrasounds during pregnancy? having five or more may be associated with increased risk of low birth weight --2. Amniocentesis involves removing a sample of amniotic fluid through syringe fluid tested for chromosomal and genetic abnormalities done between the 15th and 20th weeks of pregnancy more invasive is a risk of miscarriage after amniocentesis --3. Chorionic Villus Sampling involves inserting a tube & removing tissue from end of one or more chorionic villi (hair-like projections on membrane of developing child) performed between the 10th and 12th weeks after conception used to detect genetic abnormalities invasive nature higher risk of miscarriage risk of causing limb deformity B. Genetic-Environment Interactions nature/nurture both play an integral role in the influence of an individual. B. Genetic-Environment Interactions include --1. Passive Genotype-Environment Interaction --2. Evocative genotype-environment Interaction --3. Active Genotype-Environment Interaction --1. Passive Genotype-Environment Interaction parents can provide both the genetic predisposition as well as a nurturing context to foster certain qualities in a child Example of a Passive Genotype-Environment Interaction a musical family provides many opportunities for musical development --2. Evocative Genotype-Environment Interaction parents can provide the genetic predisposition for the child to then evoke certain reactions in others our own behaviors may play a role in our development Example of Evocative Genotype-Environment Interaction a very social child will affect others around her to behave in certain ways, which will then influence her own development. For example, this child may develop a large social group and be viewed favorably by teachers who value strong interpersonal skills --3. Active Genotype-Environment Interaction parents may provide a genetic predisposition that results in the child actively seeking out environmental conditions that foster the development of certain qualities. Example of Active Genotype-Environment Interaction a musically gifted child may single-mindedly pursue musical outlets regardless of whether others encourage him or her to do so C. Prenatal Development three major periods What are the three periods of prenatal development? germinal, embryonic, and fetal Germinal Period (Zygote) when the zygote is created and attaches to the uterine wall From conception, typically in the fallopian tube, to implantation, typically in the uterus Time period: conception - 14 days Embryonic period Time period: 2 to 8 weeks after conception layers of cells are formed. layers will develop into organs and support systems for cells --the inner layer of cells develops into the respiratory and digestive systems --the outer layer becomes the nervous system and sensory systems Fetal Period (Fetus) Time period: begins two months after conception and lasts approximately seven months Major growth and development takes place during this period C. Prenatal Development includes --1. Trimesters --2. Teratogens --1. Trimesters broken up into three first trimester of prenatal development Length: Grows up to 3 in. Weighs: about 1 oz. by the end Development: Begins to develop spinal cord, nervous system, gastrointestinal system, heart, lungs -Heartbeat detectable at 8 weeks -Can move arms, legs, fingers, toes -Brain is forming by 8 weeks -Can smile, frown, suck, swallow -Can move and respond to touch by the second month -Can tell the gender around 12 weeks second trimester of prenatal development Length: Grows to about 14 in. Weighs: about 1 lb. by the end Development: -Skin is protected by vernix (milky substance) and lanugo (fine hairs) -Heartbeat can be heard with stethoscope -Eyes open by 24 weeks -Can suck thumb, has strong grip -Has nails, hair, eyelashes, eyebrows -Can roll over; mother can feel movement -Can feel pain third trimester of prenatal development Length: Grows up to 19 in. Weighs: Average weight 6-7 lb. at 38 weeks Development: -Lanugo is nearly gone -Age of viability 22-26 weeks -Usually assumes upside-down position -Bones in skull are soft and pliable -Body fat is continually being added -Mother feels less movement at the end -Very responsive to stimulation such as touch, sound, light --2. Teratogens environmental agents can interfere with natural growth and produce a birth defect What is an interesting feature of teratogens? that their precise effects depend upon a number of variables, including: The baby’s gestational age Amount of the teratogen Susceptibility The baby’s gestational age Exposure to a particular teratogen at one point in development may not have much effect, while exposure at another point does. The general rule is that systems that are in the process of development are more susceptible at that time than other systems Amount of the teratogen More exposure might result in more damage. Susceptibility Qualities inherent in the mother and/or child may influence whether, or to what extent, a teratogen has an effect. These qualities may affect how substances are metabolized as well as how much of the substance is passed to the developing baby. teratogens are a good example of what kind of interaction? genetic-environment interaction Nicotine Miscarriage, preterm birth, low birth weight, learning difficulties, SIDS Alcohol Fetal alcohol syndrome, cognitive and emotional problems X-rays Gene mutation, possible deformity Herpes Miscarriage, low birth weight, intellectual disability Toxoplasmosis Eye and brain damage Malnutrition Nervous system damage, respiratory illness, poor health Stress Miscarriage, prematurity, low birth weight, respiratory illness, birth defects Advanced maternal age Chromosomal defects, miscarriage, infertility D. Childbirth includes --1. Stages of Childbirth --2. Strategies of Childbirth --1. Stages of Childbirth Stage I is early labor & active labor Stage II is delivery of the baby Stage III is the delivery of the placenta postpartum period Stage I is early labor & active labor -longest stage -begins at the onset of true labor -ends when the cervix is completely dilated -Early labor takes 8 to 12 hours (Contractions last 30 to 45 seconds, w/ 5 to 30 minutes of rest in btw) -active labor often takes 3 to 5 hours (contractions last 45 to 60 seconds w/ 3 to 5 minutes of rest in btw) -Contractions start out mild / irregular, then progress. -Sometimes water breaks in this stage (this is an amniotic sac rupture), sometimes it does not. Stage II is delivery of the baby -begins after the cervix is dilated completely (10 cm) -ends after the baby's delivery -stage last 20 minutes to 2 hours -when strong urge to push occurs, accompanied by a strong sense of pressure at the rectum -baby's head will eventually crown / become visible Stage III is the delivery of the placenta (afterbirth) -takes 5 to 10 minutes -Contractions start up again -placenta begins to separate from the uterine wall so can be delivered -mother may experience shaking and shivering after the placental delivery, is normal. postpartum period -final period of childbirth -when the mother's body heals -when she emotionally adjusts to childbearing and childrearing -lasts approximately 6 weeks - after 6 weeks, the body has completed biological adjustments to childbearing Biological adjustments that the body has completed include involution ( uterus returns to its normal size (dropping from 2 to 3 lb. post-delivery to 2 to 3 ounces)) Breastfeeding (helps contract the uterus at a faster rate) Numerous psychological adjustments (coordinating parents' and baby's schedules, readjusting social relationships, and bonding with the baby) --2. Strategies of Childbirth Numerous childbirth strategies exist, and parents can choose various methods of delivery Examples of Strategies of Childbirth decision of whether to use drugs during delivery decision is whether to use prepared childbirth, also known as Lamaze (named after the founder of the childbirth strategy). What are the three different types of drugs that are typically used during delivery? analgesics, anesthesia, and oxytocics analgesics elieve pain and include narcotics, barbiturates, and tranquilizers anesthesia blocks the sensation of pain in a certain area of the body. General anesthesia may also block consciousness; although today, most normal deliveries trend away from general anesthesia and instead use epidural anesthesia, which is a regional block oxytocics synthetic hormones that stimulate contractions for the purpose of inducing labor. What is the Lamaze childbirth strategy? uses breathing techniques and education to help relieve pain and control fear Compare and contrast longitudinal and cross-sectional studies. A longitudinal design enables researchers to observe change over time as well as which qualities in an individual remain stable, while a cross-sectional design does not address either of these very well. However, it is generally more difficult to conduct longitudinal researcher due to the extensive time required. A cross-sectional study simply investigates a cross-section of a population at once. Both study approaches, however, can be used to answer questions about certain aspects of lifespan development. (A. Naturalistic Observation) For the five research methods discussed in this module (naturalistic observation through experiments), write out the following: 1) What are the advantages of choosing this research design? 2) What are the disadvantages? 3) Summarize the main reason why the study design might be chosen. Naturalistic Observation 1) advantages The subject observed in a natural location, unknowingly. Encouraging unbias actions 2) disadvantages No questioning or interview is completed. Limits results to purely observations which can be personal, misobserved, or bias. 3) main reason study design might be chosen Study type would be chosen if the subject is young. As they may not be able to verbally communicate or to avoid them acting differently if they know someone is watching. (B. Case study) For the five research methods discussed in this module (naturalistic observation through experiments), write out the following: 1) What are the advantages of choosing this research design? 2) What are the disadvantages? 3) Summarize the main reason why the study design might be chosen. Case study 1) advantages in-depth interview of the subject 2) disadvantages small sample size leading to possible generalizations 3) main reason study design might be chosen Study type would be chosen if the goal is to gain as much information about the subject as possible. In cases of rare diseases or disorders (C. Survey/ Interview) For the five research methods discussed in this module (naturalistic observation through experiments), write out the following: 1) What are the advantages of choosing this research design? 2) What are the disadvantages? 3) Summarize the main reason why the study design might be chosen. Survey 1) advantages large sample size, efficient, cost-effective 2) disadvantages is self-reporting, subjects may lie, forget, or skip over questions. 3) main reason study design might be chosen Study type would be chosen when a large sample size is necessary to prevent bias. (D. Correlational Research) For the five research methods discussed in this module (naturalistic observation through experiments), write out the following: 1) What are the advantages of choosing this research design? 2) What are the disadvantages? 3) Summarize the main reason why the study design might be chosen. Correlational Research 1) advantages uses statistics, fairly accurate, show relationship of 2 variables 2) disadvantages may represent incorrect correlation to causation 3) main reason study design might be chosen Study type is typically used in addition to other studies to compare two variables in a controlled setting. (E. Experiments) For the five research methods discussed in this module (naturalistic observation through experiments), write out the following: 1) What are the advantages of choosing this research design? 2) What are the disadvantages? 3) Summarize the main reason why the study design might be chosen. Experiments 1) advantages The researcher has full control over the study. Only one variable is manipulated while everything else is held constant ensuring any changes are due to the manipulated variable. 2) disadvantages Individuals may react differently based on sex, age, etc. So sample must be very specific to ensure constants remain present 3) main reason study design might be chosen Study type would be chosen for clinical trials of new drugs or treatments as this design includes a control group and an experimental group. Describe the three types of prenatal tests described in this module, including the purposes and problems associated with each. ultrasound (sonogram) - Is a non-invasive and safe way used to create an image of the developing baby inside the mother's abdomen. High-frequency sound waves directed into the mother's abdomen echo creating an image. This type of test can show the position, gestational age, and some brain defects of the baby. A limit of 5 ultrasounds per pregnancy is placed to avoid low birth weight of the infant. amniocentesis - Is a more invasive test done between the 15th and 20th weeks of pregnancy that involves using a syringe to remove a sample of amniotic fluid. The fluid is tested for chromosomal and genetic abnormalities. Risks associated with this test include miscarriage. chorionic villus sampling - Is an invasive test performed between the 10th and 12th weeks after conception involving the insertion of a tube to remove tissue from the end of one or more villi from the membrane of the developing child. This is performed to detect genetic abnormalities. Risks associated include a higher chance of miscarriage and limb deformities. Compare and contrast the three types of genotype-environment interactions discussed in this module. The three types of genotype-environment interactions include Passive Interaction, Evocative Interaction, and Active Interaction. All three interaction types describe children that possess a predisposed gene for a certain attribute or skill. The variance exists in the child's level of interest to obtain that specific skill. 1. Passive Interaction occurs when a child does not show interest in a particular skill or attribute and has a predisposed gene for that attribute or skill. The child is greatly influenced by outside sources like parents or guardians. 2. Evocative Interaction occurs when a child shows minor interest in a skill or attribute and has a predisposed gene for that attribute or skill. This slight interest combined with the predisposition envokes an outside source to push the child towards acquiring that specific skill or attribute. 3. Active Interaction occurs when a child shows extreme interest in a skill or attribute and has a predisposed gene for that attribute or skill. Children with great desire may single-mindedly pursue acquiring that specific skill or attribute. Describe precisely when the germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods occur. The Germinal Period takes place during the first two weeks after conception. The Embryonic Period is 2-8 weeks after conception Fetal Period begins two months after conception and lasts approximately seven months. If a teratogen is introduced during the first trimester of pregnancy, what parts of the baby's body might be harmed? Since these are systems under major development in the first trimester, they are the most likely to be affected: spinal cord, brain, all major organs, limbs, face. What are the three stages of childbirth? Stage 1: Dilation and Effacement of Cervix. Stage 2: Delivery of the Baby. Stage 3: Delivery of Placenta. You will also want to know specific details of each stage. What major adjustments take place during the postpartum period? Biological adjustments include involution, not to mention sleep adjustments to combat fatigue as well as overall healing. Numerous psychological adjustments also occur, such as coordinating the parents’ and baby’s schedules, readjusting social relationships, and bonding with the baby. Development is shaped by...? genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental influence (nurture) What are examples of cross sectional studies? (NO, CS, S, C, E) - naturalistic observation - case study - survey - correlational - experiment Naturalistic Observation method - also advantages and disadvantages observations made in the subject's everyday environment - a: assess natural behavior as it occurs - d: only can access OBSERVED behavior; subject may alter behavior is observations are noticed Case Study method - also advantages and disadvantages involves observations AND interview - a: detailed information (A LOT OF IT) - d: subjective and can't be generalized Survey method - also advantages and disadvantages getting answers from many people via questionnaire or self report - a: efficient and generalized - d: concerns with self report measures (are they able to or are they motivated to tell the truth?) Correlational method - also advantages and disadvantages understanding the relationship between variables; in terms of strength and direction - a: answers key questions about the relationship between variables - d: correlation does not equal causation (association ≠ causing factor) Experiment method - also advantages and disadvantages addressing causality using manipulation and control - a: addresses causation - d: The Hawthorne Effect (very invasive) Longitudinal study design - definition & advantages and disadvantages involves following the same individuals over a long period of time with multiple assessment points - a: enables researchers to tease whether something is developmental or inherent AND explores qualities change over time and what stays the same - d: longer the study -- more time and resources needed; difficulty to commit multiple years to one singular study What is an example of a longitudinal study design? a study where children are asked about their social groups at age 10, 13, and 15 years old What do genotype-environment interactions demonstrate? how nature and nurture intertwine Prenatal Developmental Periods (3) germinal, embryonic, fetal Nature & Nurture both genetics and experience influence development Developmental Research Designs (2) longitudinal (same individual over time) cross-sectional (different ages over one time) 3 types of Genotype-Environment Interactions 1. passive: parents provide genes and environment 2. evocative: child's traits draw out responses 3. active: child seeks fitting environments Developmental Psychology study of how people grow and change over time Longitudinal Design observes same individuals over time Cross-Sectional Design compares different age groups at one singular point Teratogen any factor that can cause a birth defect during prenatal development What are 3 variables that governs influence of a teratogen? 1. baby's gestational age - use of teratogen at different points of baby development - ex: ADHD is a possible outcome of nicotine use while the brain is forming 2. amount of teratogen - more is worse 3. susceptibility to teratogen - some people are more vulnerable to issues What are some examples of teratogens? 1. nicotine 2. alcohol 3. xrays 4. herpes 5. toxoplasmosis (parasitic infection) 6. malnutrition 7. stress 8. advanced maternal age Genotype-Environment Interaction - what is it? an interplay of genes and environment What are the 3 types of prenatal diagnostic tests? Most dangerous? 1. ultrasound 2. amniocentesis 3. chorionic villus sampling (most dangerous) When can breathing motions be observed? 30 weeks When can the fetus respond to sound? 20 weeks When can thumb sucking be observed? 8-9 weeks When are arteries and veins of the heart complete? 7-8 weeks If born prematurely, baby can survive as early as... 22-26 weeks Trimesters of pregnancy 1st: 1-12 weeks 2nd: 13-28 weeks 3rd: 29-40 weeks Stages of labor dilation, delivery, placenta What are two types of prepared childbirth? Lamaze method (breathing) and pain relief strategies (analgesics, anesthesia, oxytocin's) Postpartum emotional and physical adjustment after birth