Philology 4A Midterm Exam (Old English)
History
Overall Information
The history of English literary production extends back to the 7th-century during the period of
conversion to Christianity of the Anglo-Saxons. Christianity depends on literacy among its
priests and bishops, who produced many Latin texts. Besides this, there was also the
tradition of oral poetic composition in OE. Bede’s inclusion of Cædmon’s Hymn in
Ecclesiastical History of the English People is the earliest piece of written English to survive.
Differences between medieval and post-medieval literature:
- Mode of production: contemporary books are published in print or electronic form, leading
to mass reproduction of identical texts. Medieval books were made by hand by scribes.
- Multiple versions of a single text: there were often multiple scribes who copied the same
text, all giving different preferred spellings, word orders, notes, etc.
- Authorship: medieval authors didn’t always add their name or any dates to their work.
- Audience and performance: medieval literature was read aloud.
- Importance: in the early medieval period, the church played a big role in producing
literature. A large part of Latin and English texts were written down by monks etc. In the 11th
century, scribes become more important in production. By the 13th-century, with the
emergence of universities, workshops started making manuscripts for scholarly patrons.
- Genre: early medieval to Renaissance: religious literature (ex: homilies, sermons, poems).
Key themes were the ideals of Christianity, to beware of sin, to search for salvation, etc. The
earlier period: heroic texts, which helped cement social cohesion and construct identity.
Manuscripts
The 3 libraries that store most manuscripts: the British Library (London), the Bodleian Library
(Oxford), and Parker Library. Manuscripts have shelf marks. They are unique and each have
a different story to tell. When you read an edition, it’s an interpretation of the editor.
4 main OE manuscripts:
- Junius Manuscript (11th-century), Oxford, Bodleian Library: entire content is religious verse.
- Vercelli Book (10th-century), Vercelli, Biblioteca Capitolare CXVII: contains a series of 23
prose sermons and a group of poems. 4 of these deal with scripture or saints’ lives. The
poems like Elene and The Fates of the Apostles bear a series of runes which represent the
name ‘Cynewulf’.
- Nowell Codex (AD 1000), London, British Library, Cotton Vitellius A. xv: contains Beowulf
and Judith (unfinished), which incorporates Christian overtones.
- Exeter Book (10th-century), Exeter Cathedral Library 3501: poetry which all vary in length,
theme, focus, and quality.
Stockholm codex aureus: was made in England and is made from gold leaf. It has 20
animals hiding in the letters on the front page (zoomorphic = using animals to decorate). It
was made for display, not for learning. The pages are different colours. It has a little note
which tells what happened to the manuscript: the books were held ransom by Vikings but
were obtained back by an ‘Alfred’.
1
, Paris Psalter: the last 100 psalms remain in this manuscript from a complete OE metrical
version of the book of Psalms. It is an 11th-century manuscript which has an elongated shape
(unique). It was used for singing. It has illustrations. The only manuscript that has the same
shape is the London, BL, Harley 5431. They both have an open-topped ‘a’ (an ‘a’ which
looks like a ‘u’). The Harley Psalter has similar images (from Canterbury). Since these two
are from Canterbury, the 3rd one must also be from Canterbury. The scribe was Obbiit
Wulfwinus.
Most Anglo-Saxon manuscripts were written on vellum/parchment made of calfskin. After the
scribes had done their work, the quires were sewn together and bound. The pages are a
folio with a recto (front) and a verso (back).
Exterior of manuscripts:
- the size of a book tells how it was used (small -> personal use, large -> special occasions).
- the layout may tell if it was intended for further use (ex: big text in middle with room on the
side for people to write their own notes).
- the parchment could have gaps depending on the quality (less quality -> personal use,
better quality -> display book).
- decoration: capitals (initials) are highly decorated as they mark the beginning of a new
text. There may also be people from history in the initials (historical initials). Zoomorphic
is using animals to decorate.
- illustrations were also used a lot in manuscripts.
- annotations were left by scribes to say that it was their manuscript.
Colophon = when and where the scribe was when writing the manuscript. Based on this we
know when scripts were used (+ scripts changed over time so this can also be used to
determine when it was written).
Mis-en-page = the way the text is shaped on the page.
OE scribes only used a few abbreviations, of which the most common is and or þæt. A dash
on top of a letter often signals that ‘m’ or ‘n’ has been omitted. OE scribes didn’t have strict
punctuation.
Poetry
Religious poems can take different focusses:
- The theme is a scriptural narrative or event.
- Inspired by the words / practice of church ritual (liturgical poetry), or by the lives of saints
(hagiographical poetry).
- Interpretation or allegorization of religious subjects for the purpose of teaching, as well as
individual meditations and creative outbursts of praise to God (ex: Cædmon’s Hymn).
Very early scholarship focused on the poems attempt to establish authorship. 19th-century
scholarship focused on ‘cultural archaeology’, searching for lost Germanic pagan reality.
More recently, scholars focus on the context of the manuscript (ex: structure of book,
significance of context, etc).
Syncretism = attempted union of diverse / opposite tenets or practices, especially in
philosophy or religion.
Inculturation = the gradual acquisition of the characteristics and norms of a culture / group,
ex: the adaption of Christian liturgy to a non-Christian cultural background.
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History
Overall Information
The history of English literary production extends back to the 7th-century during the period of
conversion to Christianity of the Anglo-Saxons. Christianity depends on literacy among its
priests and bishops, who produced many Latin texts. Besides this, there was also the
tradition of oral poetic composition in OE. Bede’s inclusion of Cædmon’s Hymn in
Ecclesiastical History of the English People is the earliest piece of written English to survive.
Differences between medieval and post-medieval literature:
- Mode of production: contemporary books are published in print or electronic form, leading
to mass reproduction of identical texts. Medieval books were made by hand by scribes.
- Multiple versions of a single text: there were often multiple scribes who copied the same
text, all giving different preferred spellings, word orders, notes, etc.
- Authorship: medieval authors didn’t always add their name or any dates to their work.
- Audience and performance: medieval literature was read aloud.
- Importance: in the early medieval period, the church played a big role in producing
literature. A large part of Latin and English texts were written down by monks etc. In the 11th
century, scribes become more important in production. By the 13th-century, with the
emergence of universities, workshops started making manuscripts for scholarly patrons.
- Genre: early medieval to Renaissance: religious literature (ex: homilies, sermons, poems).
Key themes were the ideals of Christianity, to beware of sin, to search for salvation, etc. The
earlier period: heroic texts, which helped cement social cohesion and construct identity.
Manuscripts
The 3 libraries that store most manuscripts: the British Library (London), the Bodleian Library
(Oxford), and Parker Library. Manuscripts have shelf marks. They are unique and each have
a different story to tell. When you read an edition, it’s an interpretation of the editor.
4 main OE manuscripts:
- Junius Manuscript (11th-century), Oxford, Bodleian Library: entire content is religious verse.
- Vercelli Book (10th-century), Vercelli, Biblioteca Capitolare CXVII: contains a series of 23
prose sermons and a group of poems. 4 of these deal with scripture or saints’ lives. The
poems like Elene and The Fates of the Apostles bear a series of runes which represent the
name ‘Cynewulf’.
- Nowell Codex (AD 1000), London, British Library, Cotton Vitellius A. xv: contains Beowulf
and Judith (unfinished), which incorporates Christian overtones.
- Exeter Book (10th-century), Exeter Cathedral Library 3501: poetry which all vary in length,
theme, focus, and quality.
Stockholm codex aureus: was made in England and is made from gold leaf. It has 20
animals hiding in the letters on the front page (zoomorphic = using animals to decorate). It
was made for display, not for learning. The pages are different colours. It has a little note
which tells what happened to the manuscript: the books were held ransom by Vikings but
were obtained back by an ‘Alfred’.
1
, Paris Psalter: the last 100 psalms remain in this manuscript from a complete OE metrical
version of the book of Psalms. It is an 11th-century manuscript which has an elongated shape
(unique). It was used for singing. It has illustrations. The only manuscript that has the same
shape is the London, BL, Harley 5431. They both have an open-topped ‘a’ (an ‘a’ which
looks like a ‘u’). The Harley Psalter has similar images (from Canterbury). Since these two
are from Canterbury, the 3rd one must also be from Canterbury. The scribe was Obbiit
Wulfwinus.
Most Anglo-Saxon manuscripts were written on vellum/parchment made of calfskin. After the
scribes had done their work, the quires were sewn together and bound. The pages are a
folio with a recto (front) and a verso (back).
Exterior of manuscripts:
- the size of a book tells how it was used (small -> personal use, large -> special occasions).
- the layout may tell if it was intended for further use (ex: big text in middle with room on the
side for people to write their own notes).
- the parchment could have gaps depending on the quality (less quality -> personal use,
better quality -> display book).
- decoration: capitals (initials) are highly decorated as they mark the beginning of a new
text. There may also be people from history in the initials (historical initials). Zoomorphic
is using animals to decorate.
- illustrations were also used a lot in manuscripts.
- annotations were left by scribes to say that it was their manuscript.
Colophon = when and where the scribe was when writing the manuscript. Based on this we
know when scripts were used (+ scripts changed over time so this can also be used to
determine when it was written).
Mis-en-page = the way the text is shaped on the page.
OE scribes only used a few abbreviations, of which the most common is and or þæt. A dash
on top of a letter often signals that ‘m’ or ‘n’ has been omitted. OE scribes didn’t have strict
punctuation.
Poetry
Religious poems can take different focusses:
- The theme is a scriptural narrative or event.
- Inspired by the words / practice of church ritual (liturgical poetry), or by the lives of saints
(hagiographical poetry).
- Interpretation or allegorization of religious subjects for the purpose of teaching, as well as
individual meditations and creative outbursts of praise to God (ex: Cædmon’s Hymn).
Very early scholarship focused on the poems attempt to establish authorship. 19th-century
scholarship focused on ‘cultural archaeology’, searching for lost Germanic pagan reality.
More recently, scholars focus on the context of the manuscript (ex: structure of book,
significance of context, etc).
Syncretism = attempted union of diverse / opposite tenets or practices, especially in
philosophy or religion.
Inculturation = the gradual acquisition of the characteristics and norms of a culture / group,
ex: the adaption of Christian liturgy to a non-Christian cultural background.
2
