External Relations of the European Union – Summary
(period 4)
Exam:
- Oral: 1 question + preparation time
-
Chair:
- Tutorial 4
Tutorial 1
Liberal intergovernmentalism (LI)/neo-liberalism:
Core assumptions
- They recognize that the international system is anarchic – there’s no higher authority
above states. they believe that anarchy can be managed through cooperation, negotiations,
and institutions.
- States can achieve mutual benefits by working together, following a positive sum game
logic where all sides can gain.
- International cooperation happens when it serves national interests, especially for
achieving economic prosperity, peace, and stability.
Key actors:
- MS’s: most influential in decision making.
- IO’s: these help states cooperate and enforce agreements.
- Domestic actors: companies, non-governmental organizations (NGO’s), civil society, and
individuals influence national policies, which shape international cooperation.
Key interests:
- Democracy and rule of law
- Economic prosperity:
- Peace and security: the democratic peace theory suggests that democratic countries are
less likely to go to war with each other, promoting stability through interdependence.
Democracies are more transparent and accountable to their people and they value
negotiation and respect international rules.
- Spreading ideas and values: liberals often seek to spread their ideals, such as democracy,
free trade and human rights.
Power: power in negotiations is affected by asymmetric interdependence :
countries that are more dependent on cooperation have less bargaining power
compared to those with more alternatives.
- Soft: involves influencing other countries through attraction, persuasion, and promoting
values like democracy and human rights. (mainly)
- Hard: involves using economic strength, military force, or other material resources to
achieve goals.
Role of IO’s:
1
, - IO’s are essential to managing anarchy by promoting economic growth, peace and
stability.
- They act as platforms where countries can negotiate, bargain, and coordinate their actions.
Values:
- Shared values make cooperation easier and are often used as tools of soft power.
- Values like democracy, free trade, and international law help build trust and partnerships.
- When national interests clash, values can become less important – each MS may prioritize
differently depending on its own needs.
Concerns:
- Bandwagoning: smaller or less powerful countries may align themselves with stronger
powers for protections or economic gains. Power imbalance: stronger c might exploit the
weaker one economically or politically.
Conception EU:
- It acts as a platform where MS work together to achieve shared goals.
- The EU spreads its values and influence beyond its borders through partnerships and
agreements.
- In some areas, MS delegate power to EU institutions, allowing them to make independent
decisions (e.g. in trade policy or competition law).
- However, for major decisions, the EU still relies on cooperation and consensus among
MS, reflecting the intergovernmental nature of its structure.
Realism
Core Assumptions: The Anarchic International System
At the heart of realism lies the idea that the international system is anarchic—there is no
overarching authority to enforce rules or guarantee security.
No central authority: Unlike domestic politics where governments maintain order, the
international arena lacks a sovereign power to enforce peace.
Self-help system: States must rely on their own resources to protect themselves, secure their
interests, and ensure survival.
Independence over cooperation: States prioritize their own sovereignty and national
interests over collective efforts.
Zero-sum logic: International relations are often competitive; one state’s gain is perceived as
another’s loss, reducing chances for mutually beneficial cooperation.
Main Actors: States as Central Players
Realism sees states as the most important and powerful actors in global politics.
States control critical resources like military and economic power and act as unitary actors—
internal politics are considered irrelevant (black box model).
The international system pushes states to compete for power instead of working together.
Staying safe and protecting themselves is their main goal, so states care more about their own
interests than about international rules or shared values.
State Behavior and Interests
Realist theory offers two major strands explaining how and why states pursue power:
Offensive Realism (John Mearsheimer):
States aim to maximize their power to dominate others and secure their position. Using force
is seen as a smart way for states to protect themselves and avoid being weak.
2
, Example: Russia’s invasion of Ukraine as an attempt to regain influence and block NATO
expansion.
Defensive Realism (Kenneth Waltz, Stephen Walt):
States try to get just enough power to stay safe. If they try to get too much, other countries
might team up against them.
Example: NATO’s expansion and support for Ukraine viewed as a move to deter aggression,
not provoke it.
Key state goals include:
1. National security – protecting the state from external threats like war.
2. Survival – maintaining sovereignty and political independence.
3. Power accumulation – especially hard power, including:
o Military strength (leading to arms races and security dilemmas)
o Economic wealth (to fund military and sustain power)
o Natural resources
o Strategic geography
The Role of International Organizations (IOs)
Realism views IOs as tools of statecraft, not independent actors.
IOs have limited importance and mainly work when their goals match the interests of
powerful states.
They are a means to an end—states use them when it’s useful and leave when it no longer
helps their national interests.
The influence of IOs depends on the distribution of power—stronger states have more control
over what happens, while weaker states have less influence.
Realist View on Values and Norms
Realists are skeptical of international cooperation based on values like democracy or
human rights.
They argue that such value-based cooperation is unreliable and secondary to power and
security concerns.
Tangible power—military strength, economic resources—is considered far more important for
achieving peace and stability than shared ideals.
6. Key Challenges in the Realist Worldview
Balance of Power: Realism stresses that peace is most stable when power is evenly
distributed among major players. Any disruption (e.g. one state becoming too powerful) can
trigger conflict.
Security Dilemma:
o When one state builds up its military for defense, others feel threatened and do the
same.
o This leads to mutual suspicion, arms races, and higher chances of conflict—even if no
state intends to attack.
The European Union through a Realist Lens
Realists view the EU not as a supranational actor but as a product of geopolitical
competition among its member states.
Integration is limited by national interests—Member States (MS) work together when it
benefits them but avoid deeper unity if it risks their sovereignty.
The EU is seen as fragile—if a major MS leaves (like Brexit), it can hurt the EU’s stability.
3
, Power disparities shape EU politics—larger states (like Germany and France) have more
control, while smaller MS have less influence.
Bandwagoning: weaker MS may join stronger ones to get protection or economic benefits,
but this can mean giving up some independence
Constructivism
Constructivism focuses on ideas, identities, and norms rather than just material interests like military
or economic power. It argues that international relations are shaped by socially constructed realities
—how states see themselves, others, and the world around them.
- Not just self-interest or security: state actions are influenced by values, beliefs, and
collective meanings, not only by survival or power.
- Anarchy is what states make of it (Wendt): There isn’t just one way to understand
anarchy—states shape their own rules and relationships based on their history, culture, and
shared ideas.
The nature of the international system:
Constructivism doesn’t see the international system as naturally anarchic or cooperative.
Instead, the structure of the system is shaped by state interactions and shared meanings over .
time
Key actors:
- States remain important but so are: domestic actors (political leaders, civil society),
NGO’s, IO’s, ideas and norms themselves.
Interest and identity: interests are fluid, shaped by a state’s identity, values, and historical
context.
- State identity influences how it interprets events and acts.
- States can respond differently to the same situation because they see it through different
cultural or historical lenses.
Understanding of power
- Power is not just about military force or money—it also includes normative power,
which means shaping ideas, beliefs, and behavior.
- Soft power is important: for example, the EU uses its values—like democracy, human
rights, and international law—to influence others instead of using military force.
- In constructivism, a key kind of power is the ability to create global norms and shape
what is seen as legitimate or right.
Role of IO’s: constructivists view IO’s as active shapers of norms and behavior.
- Unlike in realism, IOs are not just tools used by powerful states.
- They help decide what is legitimate and spread shared values, which can change how
states think and behave.
Key concerns: the problem of othering
- Constructivism warns about the dangers of “othering” – when states define themselves in
contrast to others, often creating enemies or outsiders.
The EU through a constructivist lens
- Constructivism sees the EU not just as a political or economic actor, but as a community
of shared values.
- The EU is a place where Member States (MS) work together based on common beliefs
and a shared identity.
- The EU’s power comes from spreading its values and norms (like through partnerships,
trade deals, and foreign policy) and influencing countries outside the EU.
4
(period 4)
Exam:
- Oral: 1 question + preparation time
-
Chair:
- Tutorial 4
Tutorial 1
Liberal intergovernmentalism (LI)/neo-liberalism:
Core assumptions
- They recognize that the international system is anarchic – there’s no higher authority
above states. they believe that anarchy can be managed through cooperation, negotiations,
and institutions.
- States can achieve mutual benefits by working together, following a positive sum game
logic where all sides can gain.
- International cooperation happens when it serves national interests, especially for
achieving economic prosperity, peace, and stability.
Key actors:
- MS’s: most influential in decision making.
- IO’s: these help states cooperate and enforce agreements.
- Domestic actors: companies, non-governmental organizations (NGO’s), civil society, and
individuals influence national policies, which shape international cooperation.
Key interests:
- Democracy and rule of law
- Economic prosperity:
- Peace and security: the democratic peace theory suggests that democratic countries are
less likely to go to war with each other, promoting stability through interdependence.
Democracies are more transparent and accountable to their people and they value
negotiation and respect international rules.
- Spreading ideas and values: liberals often seek to spread their ideals, such as democracy,
free trade and human rights.
Power: power in negotiations is affected by asymmetric interdependence :
countries that are more dependent on cooperation have less bargaining power
compared to those with more alternatives.
- Soft: involves influencing other countries through attraction, persuasion, and promoting
values like democracy and human rights. (mainly)
- Hard: involves using economic strength, military force, or other material resources to
achieve goals.
Role of IO’s:
1
, - IO’s are essential to managing anarchy by promoting economic growth, peace and
stability.
- They act as platforms where countries can negotiate, bargain, and coordinate their actions.
Values:
- Shared values make cooperation easier and are often used as tools of soft power.
- Values like democracy, free trade, and international law help build trust and partnerships.
- When national interests clash, values can become less important – each MS may prioritize
differently depending on its own needs.
Concerns:
- Bandwagoning: smaller or less powerful countries may align themselves with stronger
powers for protections or economic gains. Power imbalance: stronger c might exploit the
weaker one economically or politically.
Conception EU:
- It acts as a platform where MS work together to achieve shared goals.
- The EU spreads its values and influence beyond its borders through partnerships and
agreements.
- In some areas, MS delegate power to EU institutions, allowing them to make independent
decisions (e.g. in trade policy or competition law).
- However, for major decisions, the EU still relies on cooperation and consensus among
MS, reflecting the intergovernmental nature of its structure.
Realism
Core Assumptions: The Anarchic International System
At the heart of realism lies the idea that the international system is anarchic—there is no
overarching authority to enforce rules or guarantee security.
No central authority: Unlike domestic politics where governments maintain order, the
international arena lacks a sovereign power to enforce peace.
Self-help system: States must rely on their own resources to protect themselves, secure their
interests, and ensure survival.
Independence over cooperation: States prioritize their own sovereignty and national
interests over collective efforts.
Zero-sum logic: International relations are often competitive; one state’s gain is perceived as
another’s loss, reducing chances for mutually beneficial cooperation.
Main Actors: States as Central Players
Realism sees states as the most important and powerful actors in global politics.
States control critical resources like military and economic power and act as unitary actors—
internal politics are considered irrelevant (black box model).
The international system pushes states to compete for power instead of working together.
Staying safe and protecting themselves is their main goal, so states care more about their own
interests than about international rules or shared values.
State Behavior and Interests
Realist theory offers two major strands explaining how and why states pursue power:
Offensive Realism (John Mearsheimer):
States aim to maximize their power to dominate others and secure their position. Using force
is seen as a smart way for states to protect themselves and avoid being weak.
2
, Example: Russia’s invasion of Ukraine as an attempt to regain influence and block NATO
expansion.
Defensive Realism (Kenneth Waltz, Stephen Walt):
States try to get just enough power to stay safe. If they try to get too much, other countries
might team up against them.
Example: NATO’s expansion and support for Ukraine viewed as a move to deter aggression,
not provoke it.
Key state goals include:
1. National security – protecting the state from external threats like war.
2. Survival – maintaining sovereignty and political independence.
3. Power accumulation – especially hard power, including:
o Military strength (leading to arms races and security dilemmas)
o Economic wealth (to fund military and sustain power)
o Natural resources
o Strategic geography
The Role of International Organizations (IOs)
Realism views IOs as tools of statecraft, not independent actors.
IOs have limited importance and mainly work when their goals match the interests of
powerful states.
They are a means to an end—states use them when it’s useful and leave when it no longer
helps their national interests.
The influence of IOs depends on the distribution of power—stronger states have more control
over what happens, while weaker states have less influence.
Realist View on Values and Norms
Realists are skeptical of international cooperation based on values like democracy or
human rights.
They argue that such value-based cooperation is unreliable and secondary to power and
security concerns.
Tangible power—military strength, economic resources—is considered far more important for
achieving peace and stability than shared ideals.
6. Key Challenges in the Realist Worldview
Balance of Power: Realism stresses that peace is most stable when power is evenly
distributed among major players. Any disruption (e.g. one state becoming too powerful) can
trigger conflict.
Security Dilemma:
o When one state builds up its military for defense, others feel threatened and do the
same.
o This leads to mutual suspicion, arms races, and higher chances of conflict—even if no
state intends to attack.
The European Union through a Realist Lens
Realists view the EU not as a supranational actor but as a product of geopolitical
competition among its member states.
Integration is limited by national interests—Member States (MS) work together when it
benefits them but avoid deeper unity if it risks their sovereignty.
The EU is seen as fragile—if a major MS leaves (like Brexit), it can hurt the EU’s stability.
3
, Power disparities shape EU politics—larger states (like Germany and France) have more
control, while smaller MS have less influence.
Bandwagoning: weaker MS may join stronger ones to get protection or economic benefits,
but this can mean giving up some independence
Constructivism
Constructivism focuses on ideas, identities, and norms rather than just material interests like military
or economic power. It argues that international relations are shaped by socially constructed realities
—how states see themselves, others, and the world around them.
- Not just self-interest or security: state actions are influenced by values, beliefs, and
collective meanings, not only by survival or power.
- Anarchy is what states make of it (Wendt): There isn’t just one way to understand
anarchy—states shape their own rules and relationships based on their history, culture, and
shared ideas.
The nature of the international system:
Constructivism doesn’t see the international system as naturally anarchic or cooperative.
Instead, the structure of the system is shaped by state interactions and shared meanings over .
time
Key actors:
- States remain important but so are: domestic actors (political leaders, civil society),
NGO’s, IO’s, ideas and norms themselves.
Interest and identity: interests are fluid, shaped by a state’s identity, values, and historical
context.
- State identity influences how it interprets events and acts.
- States can respond differently to the same situation because they see it through different
cultural or historical lenses.
Understanding of power
- Power is not just about military force or money—it also includes normative power,
which means shaping ideas, beliefs, and behavior.
- Soft power is important: for example, the EU uses its values—like democracy, human
rights, and international law—to influence others instead of using military force.
- In constructivism, a key kind of power is the ability to create global norms and shape
what is seen as legitimate or right.
Role of IO’s: constructivists view IO’s as active shapers of norms and behavior.
- Unlike in realism, IOs are not just tools used by powerful states.
- They help decide what is legitimate and spread shared values, which can change how
states think and behave.
Key concerns: the problem of othering
- Constructivism warns about the dangers of “othering” – when states define themselves in
contrast to others, often creating enemies or outsiders.
The EU through a constructivist lens
- Constructivism sees the EU not just as a political or economic actor, but as a community
of shared values.
- The EU is a place where Member States (MS) work together based on common beliefs
and a shared identity.
- The EU’s power comes from spreading its values and norms (like through partnerships,
trade deals, and foreign policy) and influencing countries outside the EU.
4
