Ostoni Monica 2024/2025 IPLE, Unimi
State And Society in North Africa and
The Mediterranean Region
Lecture 1: 13/01
Introduction
Important distinctions:
• Maghreb (Morocco, Algeria, etc. → north-western Africa) vs. Mashreq (Egypt, Tunisia → east northern
Africa)
• North Africa and the Middle East (MENA) → others prefer to use the distinction between West Asia and
North Africa (WANA) or the “Mediterranean” (divided in 2 areas: Western, Central, Eastern);
• Orientalism
ORIENTALISM
Orientalism (decolonization influenced by Western visions) → Topic introduced by Edward Said, 1978.
What is Orientalism? It’s stereotypes: existence of a kind of exaggeration of differences, the presumption of
Western superiority, and the application of clichéd analytical models for perceiving the "Oriental world".
“So far as the United States seems to be concerned, it is only a slight overstatement to say that Moslems
and Arabs are essentially seen as either oil suppliers or potential terrorists. Very little of the detail, the
human density, the passion of Arab–Moslem life has entered the awareness of even those people
whose profession it is to report the Arab world. What we have, instead, is a series of crude,
essentialized caricatures of the Islamic world, presented in such a way as to make that world vulnerable to
military aggression” (Said, 1978)
“I doubt if it is controversial, for example, to say that an Englishman in India, or Egypt, in the later
nineteenth century, took an interest in those countries, which was never far from their status, in his mind, as
British colonies. To say this may seem quite different from saying that all academic knowledge about India
and Egypt is somehow tinged and impressed with, violated by, the gross political fact – and yet that is what
I am saying in this study of Orientalism” (Said, 1978)
Said says that when we discuss this topic, we are still rooted in a deep colonial thinking.
Oriental Despotism
• German philosopher Karl Wittfogel used the concept of Oriental despotism in his book “Oriental
Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power” (1957) by attempting to establish the idea of a distinctive,
non-Western system of despotic power.
• He has interpreted communist totalitarian regimes as much more despotic variants of oriental despotism.
• Wittfogel argued that the transition from feudalism to oriental despotism was prompted mainly by the
expansion and intensification of agriculture by means of large-scale irrigation, control that necessitated
coordination by a centralized state (which complicates the possibility of democracy).
Critiques:
O'Leary and Gellner (The Asiatic Mode of Production, 1989) revised the conventional understanding of the
Asiatic mode of production showing the inaccuracy and empirical deficiencies of Karl Wittfogel’s concept of
"Oriental Despotism” (democracies vs. non-democracies).
1
,Ostoni Monica 2024/2025 IPLE, Unimi
DEVELOPMENTAL STATES
In states late to industrialize, the state itself led the industrialization drive, that is, it took on developmental
functions (Johnson 1994).
There are two different orientations toward private economic activities: the regulatory orientation and the
developmental orientation, and they produced two different kinds of business-government relationships.
The United States is a good example of a state in which the regulatory orientation predominates
Japan (Southeast Asia) is a good example of a state in which the developmental orientation predominates.
In developmental countries, wealth increases but poverty decreases as well, and the governments are able and
willing to protect their people from the negative consequences of foreign corporate exploitation.
OVERSTATING THE ARAB STATE
Ayubi (1996) describes the Arab world within a theoretical framework that avoids both "orientalist" and
"fundamentalist" insistence on the peculiarity and uniqueness of the region.
Ayubi deals with the emergence of social classes, corporatism, economic liberalization and the relationship
between state and civil society.
MENA REGION:
(restricted region)
(extended region)
Key Points Mena Region:
- Common historical periods and trends: Imperialism (Ottoman, European)/Authoritarianism/military elites
- Arab Nationalism
- Nasserism, Third-Worldism (opposed by State and non-state actors)
- Pan-Arabism (after 1956 increasing Egyptian leading role); Arab League (1945)
- Political Islam; Islamic radicalism
- Revolutions and Social movements
- State vs. non-state actors; tribal étatisme
- Shadow State
- Arab Uprisings
Key Events:
- 1948: Foundation of Israel in Palestine (Balfour Declaration 1917)
- 1952: Free Officers Coup/Revolution (Egypt)
2
,Ostoni Monica 2024/2025 IPLE, Unimi
- 1956: Nationalization of the Suez Canal (Anglo-French-Israel attack against Nasser); Defeat of European
powers, Egypt conquered complete independence from the UK; End of European Imperialism
- 1967-1973: 6 Days War and Yom Kippur
- 1975-1990: Lebanese Civil War
- 1979: Iranian Revolution
- 1991-2003: Gulf War and Iraq War
- 1991-2002: Algerian Civil War
- 2001: 11/09, Afghanistan
- 2011: Arab Springs
- 2013-2014: Egypt military coup; Isis
Key Actors:
- Nasser → quite a revolutionary politician (considered as a hero by many Egyptian – and not only –
nationalists)
- Mohammed Reza Palavi → last shah in Iran before the revolution in 1979
- First ayatollah Khomeini → leader of the Iranian Revolution
- Ben Gurion → first president of Israel
- Hafez Al-Assad → dictator in Syria
- Saddam Hussein → Iraqi president from 1979 to 2003
- Ghaddafi → Libyan revolutionary and dictator
- Yasser Arafat → Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)
- Ben Ali → former Tunisian president (overthrown after the Arab Springs)
- Hosni Mubarak → Egyptian president from 1981 to 2011.
- Erdogan → Turkish president (ongoing)
RELIGIONS, LANGUAGE AND MINORITIES
- Islam: Sunni, Shia (alawites, alevi), Druze, Sufi, Salafi
- Christians (Copts in Egypt, Maronites in Lebanon)
- Others (Zoroastrian, Bahai)
- Kurds (Iran, Iraq, Turkey and Syria)
- Berbers (Algeria and Tunisia) → Amazigh
- Tribes (Libya), Sistan and Baluchistan
- Sahrawi (Morocco/Western Sahara)
- Hazara (Afghanistan)
- Syrian and Palestinian Refugees
- Foreign encroachment
- Modern Standard Arabic, Turkish and Persian, local dialects, French, English, Spanish, Italian, Kurdish,
Hebrew
Lecture 2: 14/01
Arab Nationalism
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
In the second half of the XIX century, the Ottoman Empire (regencies of Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli) was leaving
space to local autonomy and private activities using Islamic values and commercial trades in the Mediterranean
region. In the meantime, Western powers occupied North African countries for tackling issues related to internal
policies, defending trade interests of local communities of expatriates and imposing their economic control.
(Owen, 2002; Cleveland, 2016)
3
, Ostoni Monica 2024/2025 IPLE, Unimi
• EGYPT: one of the richest provinces of the Ottoman Empire with a strong tradition of nationalism (after 2
centuries of Mamelukes rule). Ottomans’ tax dominion but strong local autonomy.
Uk in Egypt: indirect rule (colony of exploitation) no military occupation but economic and political control
(Egyptian monarchy hostage of British agents).
• LIBYA: Italian rule (before fascism), Mohammed Idriss el-Senussi became Emir of Tripolitania, later king
of the independent Libya. After 1931, Senussi was expelled to Egypt, he delegated Omar al-Mukhtar for
leading the resistance.
Italy added Libyan provinces to the metropolitan territory exploiting agricultural resources and excluding
local people (characteristic of Italian colonial rule).
Al-Mukhtar was hanged, Libyans were stripped of their land properties and dignity and General Graziani
imposed an authoritarian control of executions, mass deportations, confiscation of properties etc.
After World War I, ideas of self-determination, anti-colonization and equality were spreading in the region →
Mass participation in politics began.
• ALGERIA: Assimilation to the French territory (“Algerie française”). French expatriates enslaved locals
for their needs. Indigenous people were not considered as citizens. Petite empire, including Tunisia and
Morocco (colonies of exploitation with indigenous labour). Settler colonization (1 million French living in
Algeria).
Foreign ministers sent from Paris ruled the countries, leading the army and bureaucracy. The longest war for
independence took place in Algeria (1954-1962) (movie: The battle of Algiers, Gillo Pontecorvo) with the
revolutionary and popular movement led by the National Liberation Front (FLN) (250,000 victims).
Diplomatic efforts to find a solution (Charles De Gaulle role).
AFTER INDEPENDENCE
Egypt: Gamal Abdel Nasser and the Free Officers take over in 1952. After 1956, Egypt and Nasser (pan-Arab
revolutionary leader) start to have a leading role in the MENA region.
Tunisia, after independence (achieved in 1956) was ruled by Habib Bourguiba in the name of modernization and
pragmatism.
Morocco (not part of the Ottoman Empire and isolated until the XVII century) with the kings Mohammed V and
Hassan II, was living within a system of interdependence with France exacerbating inequalities (after limited
independence from France in 1956).
Policy of “Greater Morocco”: Moroccan expansion towards Mauritania and Western Sahara (at odds with Sahrawi
and their Algerian supporters).
Algeria: After independence (1962), Algiers became a revolutionary capital, while Rabat and Tunis (against
Egyptian hegemonic ambitions), were conservative regimes. Rivalry between pro-Western moderates, on the one
hand, and Algiers advocating for radical change (pro-Soviet, pro-neutrality), on the other hand.
Role of the army → the Army had a central role in the national reconstruction in Algeria, Egypt and Libya (still
weak civil societies after colonization prevented the formation of democratic middle classes) and influenced by
Constitutional reforms it bread riots (waves of protests) → Arab Socialism of Anwar al-Sadat, decreasing oil prices
and neo-liberal infitah policies (Guazzone, 2009).
Pan-Arabism vs Inter-Arab confrontations for national ambitions for broadening each country influence.
Muammar Ghaddafi with growing oil revenues shaped Libya as an anti-imperialist country → Libyan
independence after World War II was influenced by the presence of US military bases.
Paving the way to reaching power in the 80s to radical Islamic groups in Algeria (decennie noire) and Morocco to
replace weak welfare states and global economic crises. Loss of support for nationalist corrupt governments.
First multi-party elections in Algeria, rise to power of Ben Ali in Tunisia, Mubarak liberalization policies in Egypt
(radical Islamic terrorism); authoritarian restauration, youth exclusion.
4
State And Society in North Africa and
The Mediterranean Region
Lecture 1: 13/01
Introduction
Important distinctions:
• Maghreb (Morocco, Algeria, etc. → north-western Africa) vs. Mashreq (Egypt, Tunisia → east northern
Africa)
• North Africa and the Middle East (MENA) → others prefer to use the distinction between West Asia and
North Africa (WANA) or the “Mediterranean” (divided in 2 areas: Western, Central, Eastern);
• Orientalism
ORIENTALISM
Orientalism (decolonization influenced by Western visions) → Topic introduced by Edward Said, 1978.
What is Orientalism? It’s stereotypes: existence of a kind of exaggeration of differences, the presumption of
Western superiority, and the application of clichéd analytical models for perceiving the "Oriental world".
“So far as the United States seems to be concerned, it is only a slight overstatement to say that Moslems
and Arabs are essentially seen as either oil suppliers or potential terrorists. Very little of the detail, the
human density, the passion of Arab–Moslem life has entered the awareness of even those people
whose profession it is to report the Arab world. What we have, instead, is a series of crude,
essentialized caricatures of the Islamic world, presented in such a way as to make that world vulnerable to
military aggression” (Said, 1978)
“I doubt if it is controversial, for example, to say that an Englishman in India, or Egypt, in the later
nineteenth century, took an interest in those countries, which was never far from their status, in his mind, as
British colonies. To say this may seem quite different from saying that all academic knowledge about India
and Egypt is somehow tinged and impressed with, violated by, the gross political fact – and yet that is what
I am saying in this study of Orientalism” (Said, 1978)
Said says that when we discuss this topic, we are still rooted in a deep colonial thinking.
Oriental Despotism
• German philosopher Karl Wittfogel used the concept of Oriental despotism in his book “Oriental
Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power” (1957) by attempting to establish the idea of a distinctive,
non-Western system of despotic power.
• He has interpreted communist totalitarian regimes as much more despotic variants of oriental despotism.
• Wittfogel argued that the transition from feudalism to oriental despotism was prompted mainly by the
expansion and intensification of agriculture by means of large-scale irrigation, control that necessitated
coordination by a centralized state (which complicates the possibility of democracy).
Critiques:
O'Leary and Gellner (The Asiatic Mode of Production, 1989) revised the conventional understanding of the
Asiatic mode of production showing the inaccuracy and empirical deficiencies of Karl Wittfogel’s concept of
"Oriental Despotism” (democracies vs. non-democracies).
1
,Ostoni Monica 2024/2025 IPLE, Unimi
DEVELOPMENTAL STATES
In states late to industrialize, the state itself led the industrialization drive, that is, it took on developmental
functions (Johnson 1994).
There are two different orientations toward private economic activities: the regulatory orientation and the
developmental orientation, and they produced two different kinds of business-government relationships.
The United States is a good example of a state in which the regulatory orientation predominates
Japan (Southeast Asia) is a good example of a state in which the developmental orientation predominates.
In developmental countries, wealth increases but poverty decreases as well, and the governments are able and
willing to protect their people from the negative consequences of foreign corporate exploitation.
OVERSTATING THE ARAB STATE
Ayubi (1996) describes the Arab world within a theoretical framework that avoids both "orientalist" and
"fundamentalist" insistence on the peculiarity and uniqueness of the region.
Ayubi deals with the emergence of social classes, corporatism, economic liberalization and the relationship
between state and civil society.
MENA REGION:
(restricted region)
(extended region)
Key Points Mena Region:
- Common historical periods and trends: Imperialism (Ottoman, European)/Authoritarianism/military elites
- Arab Nationalism
- Nasserism, Third-Worldism (opposed by State and non-state actors)
- Pan-Arabism (after 1956 increasing Egyptian leading role); Arab League (1945)
- Political Islam; Islamic radicalism
- Revolutions and Social movements
- State vs. non-state actors; tribal étatisme
- Shadow State
- Arab Uprisings
Key Events:
- 1948: Foundation of Israel in Palestine (Balfour Declaration 1917)
- 1952: Free Officers Coup/Revolution (Egypt)
2
,Ostoni Monica 2024/2025 IPLE, Unimi
- 1956: Nationalization of the Suez Canal (Anglo-French-Israel attack against Nasser); Defeat of European
powers, Egypt conquered complete independence from the UK; End of European Imperialism
- 1967-1973: 6 Days War and Yom Kippur
- 1975-1990: Lebanese Civil War
- 1979: Iranian Revolution
- 1991-2003: Gulf War and Iraq War
- 1991-2002: Algerian Civil War
- 2001: 11/09, Afghanistan
- 2011: Arab Springs
- 2013-2014: Egypt military coup; Isis
Key Actors:
- Nasser → quite a revolutionary politician (considered as a hero by many Egyptian – and not only –
nationalists)
- Mohammed Reza Palavi → last shah in Iran before the revolution in 1979
- First ayatollah Khomeini → leader of the Iranian Revolution
- Ben Gurion → first president of Israel
- Hafez Al-Assad → dictator in Syria
- Saddam Hussein → Iraqi president from 1979 to 2003
- Ghaddafi → Libyan revolutionary and dictator
- Yasser Arafat → Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)
- Ben Ali → former Tunisian president (overthrown after the Arab Springs)
- Hosni Mubarak → Egyptian president from 1981 to 2011.
- Erdogan → Turkish president (ongoing)
RELIGIONS, LANGUAGE AND MINORITIES
- Islam: Sunni, Shia (alawites, alevi), Druze, Sufi, Salafi
- Christians (Copts in Egypt, Maronites in Lebanon)
- Others (Zoroastrian, Bahai)
- Kurds (Iran, Iraq, Turkey and Syria)
- Berbers (Algeria and Tunisia) → Amazigh
- Tribes (Libya), Sistan and Baluchistan
- Sahrawi (Morocco/Western Sahara)
- Hazara (Afghanistan)
- Syrian and Palestinian Refugees
- Foreign encroachment
- Modern Standard Arabic, Turkish and Persian, local dialects, French, English, Spanish, Italian, Kurdish,
Hebrew
Lecture 2: 14/01
Arab Nationalism
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
In the second half of the XIX century, the Ottoman Empire (regencies of Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli) was leaving
space to local autonomy and private activities using Islamic values and commercial trades in the Mediterranean
region. In the meantime, Western powers occupied North African countries for tackling issues related to internal
policies, defending trade interests of local communities of expatriates and imposing their economic control.
(Owen, 2002; Cleveland, 2016)
3
, Ostoni Monica 2024/2025 IPLE, Unimi
• EGYPT: one of the richest provinces of the Ottoman Empire with a strong tradition of nationalism (after 2
centuries of Mamelukes rule). Ottomans’ tax dominion but strong local autonomy.
Uk in Egypt: indirect rule (colony of exploitation) no military occupation but economic and political control
(Egyptian monarchy hostage of British agents).
• LIBYA: Italian rule (before fascism), Mohammed Idriss el-Senussi became Emir of Tripolitania, later king
of the independent Libya. After 1931, Senussi was expelled to Egypt, he delegated Omar al-Mukhtar for
leading the resistance.
Italy added Libyan provinces to the metropolitan territory exploiting agricultural resources and excluding
local people (characteristic of Italian colonial rule).
Al-Mukhtar was hanged, Libyans were stripped of their land properties and dignity and General Graziani
imposed an authoritarian control of executions, mass deportations, confiscation of properties etc.
After World War I, ideas of self-determination, anti-colonization and equality were spreading in the region →
Mass participation in politics began.
• ALGERIA: Assimilation to the French territory (“Algerie française”). French expatriates enslaved locals
for their needs. Indigenous people were not considered as citizens. Petite empire, including Tunisia and
Morocco (colonies of exploitation with indigenous labour). Settler colonization (1 million French living in
Algeria).
Foreign ministers sent from Paris ruled the countries, leading the army and bureaucracy. The longest war for
independence took place in Algeria (1954-1962) (movie: The battle of Algiers, Gillo Pontecorvo) with the
revolutionary and popular movement led by the National Liberation Front (FLN) (250,000 victims).
Diplomatic efforts to find a solution (Charles De Gaulle role).
AFTER INDEPENDENCE
Egypt: Gamal Abdel Nasser and the Free Officers take over in 1952. After 1956, Egypt and Nasser (pan-Arab
revolutionary leader) start to have a leading role in the MENA region.
Tunisia, after independence (achieved in 1956) was ruled by Habib Bourguiba in the name of modernization and
pragmatism.
Morocco (not part of the Ottoman Empire and isolated until the XVII century) with the kings Mohammed V and
Hassan II, was living within a system of interdependence with France exacerbating inequalities (after limited
independence from France in 1956).
Policy of “Greater Morocco”: Moroccan expansion towards Mauritania and Western Sahara (at odds with Sahrawi
and their Algerian supporters).
Algeria: After independence (1962), Algiers became a revolutionary capital, while Rabat and Tunis (against
Egyptian hegemonic ambitions), were conservative regimes. Rivalry between pro-Western moderates, on the one
hand, and Algiers advocating for radical change (pro-Soviet, pro-neutrality), on the other hand.
Role of the army → the Army had a central role in the national reconstruction in Algeria, Egypt and Libya (still
weak civil societies after colonization prevented the formation of democratic middle classes) and influenced by
Constitutional reforms it bread riots (waves of protests) → Arab Socialism of Anwar al-Sadat, decreasing oil prices
and neo-liberal infitah policies (Guazzone, 2009).
Pan-Arabism vs Inter-Arab confrontations for national ambitions for broadening each country influence.
Muammar Ghaddafi with growing oil revenues shaped Libya as an anti-imperialist country → Libyan
independence after World War II was influenced by the presence of US military bases.
Paving the way to reaching power in the 80s to radical Islamic groups in Algeria (decennie noire) and Morocco to
replace weak welfare states and global economic crises. Loss of support for nationalist corrupt governments.
First multi-party elections in Algeria, rise to power of Ben Ali in Tunisia, Mubarak liberalization policies in Egypt
(radical Islamic terrorism); authoritarian restauration, youth exclusion.
4
