Chapter 1: The Uses of Social Research Methods
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading Chapter 1, students should be able to do the following:
1. Distinguish research from other ways of knowing about the world.
2. Understand the limitations of relying on authorities or personal experience as a basis for knowing
about the world.
3. Identify four steps of the scientific method.
4. Understand how the scientific method contributes to greater objectivity and intersubjectivity.
5. Appreciate the varied purposes of research.
6. Understand the value and importance of basic and applied research.
7. Identify the distinctions among descriptive, exploratory, explanatory, and evaluative research.
KEY TERMS – (page references from text in parentheses)
Applied Research (11) Personal Inquiry (5)
Authorities (4) Positivist View of Science (6)
Basic Research (11) Post-Positivist View of Science (7)
Descriptive Study (14) Premature Closure (6)
Evaluation Research (16) Qualitative Data Analysis (14)
Explanatory Research (15) Quantitative Data Analysis (15)
Exploratory Research (13) Research Question (2)
Factually testable (9) Scientific Method (6)
Intersubjectivity (7) Theory (10)
Objectivity (7) Unit of Analysis (3)
Overgeneralize (9)
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Introduction
a. What is a research question?
• A question about one or more topics or concepts that can be answered through research.
II. Research versus Other Ways of Knowing
a. Knowledge from Authorities
• Examples: Mom, Census Bureau, Social Institutions (Religion, School, Media)
1. Problems: may be misleading and/or incorrect
b. Knowledge from Personal Inquiry
• Inquiry that employs the senses’ evidence for arriving at knowledge
1. Problems: Overgeneralize from a limited number of cases
2. Perceive Selectivity
3. Premature Closure-tendency to stop searching once we think we have an answer
c. Strengths of the Scientific Method
• Positivist View of Science
• Post-positivist view of Science
• Objectivity- the ability to see the world as it really is.
• Intersubjectivity-agreements about reality that result from comparing the observations of
more than one observer.
1
,The Uses of Social Research Methods
• The Promotion of Skepticism and Intersubjectivity
• The Extensive Use of Communication
• Testing Ideas Factually
• The Use of Logic
• Theoretical Explanation
1. Theory-an explanation of how and why something is at is
III. The Uses and Purpose of Social Research
a. Uses of Social Research
• Basic Research-designed to add to our knowledge about the social world
• Applied Research-designed to have practical results and used in the immediate future
b. Purpose of Social Research
• Exploratory Research
1. Inductive research on a relatively unstudied topic in a new area
2. Qualitative data analysis
• Descriptive Research
1. Research designed to describe groups, activities, situations, or events. Provides detailed
and precise idea of the way things are, perhaps even how they have changed over time.
2. Quantitative data analysis
• Explanatory Research
1. Research designed to explain why subjects vary in one way or another; plays an
important role in theory building.
IV. Evaluation Research
a. Evaluation Research-research designed to assess the impacts of programs, policies, or legal
changes.
TEACHING TIPS
In Class Assignments
1. Bring in, or have students bring in, some articles from the newspaper about topics of interest to
sociologists. Compare journalistic coverage to social science interest. Discuss the sources of data
and what these reports might mean to the public and to interest groups. Discuss why it is so
difficult to get "final answers" on questions that are essentially tied to values, e.g. the death
penalty, abortion and others.
2. Have students spend a few minutes writing about why so many people spend so much time and
money on consulting psychics and horoscopes. Why are so many individuals willing to trust the
advice of sources, whose basis in evidence is somewhat suspect (from a scientific point of view)?
3. The media is another authoritative source from which we get information. Have students discuss
sources of media, those of which are more trustable authoritative sources and those which may be
more biased. Have students discuss ways in which the media may collect and present information
in ways that may be biased.
4. Create a survey with items that collects basic descriptive data about students as well responses to
questions about political opinions and attitudes. Students should generate a code name for
2
, Chapter 1
themselves. This survey should be collected and then distributed to students for analysis
throughout the semester. (See Chapters 6, 9, and 15 in this manual for exercises that use
information gathered in this survey). This test or survey should include different types of
questions (closed-ended and open ended), with allowance for data analysis with nominal, ordinal
and other levels of measurement. The instrument should include questions that are clearly
worded, as well as those that are likely to be misunderstood by students. A sample pre-test is
shown in the Appendix.
5. Have students spend a class time in a student union, or place on campus heavily populated by
students on campus. To demonstrate the example of knowledge by personal inquiry, have
students do a one hour observational research of campus students. Students can be observing
whether or not students are studying, socializing, attending or skipping class. Are certain types of
students more likely to engage in certain types of activities? What do they conclude about the
student body after these observations? How does this activity coincide with the example and
issues that go along with knowledge by personal inquiry?
Videos
There are many films that can be used to begin a discussion of research methods in sociology.
1. Sociological Thinking and Research
Focusing on a sociological study of Times Square, this video discusses how research is used to
answer key questions about society. The researchers discuss the formulation of research
questions, employ multiple methodologies and explain how their findings are used by
stakeholders and other interested audiences.
This film can be found by writing to Insight Media, 121 West 85th Street, New York, NY 10024.
Discussion questions:
1. Why is itmportant to spend the time to develop appropriate experimental designs for each
research question?
2. What was the study done in Time Square? What was researcher’s experimental design?
3. Why is it important to have a sociological imagination when developing research questions?
2. Research Methods for the Social Sciences
This video provides an overview of the research process and the challenges of applying the
scientific method in the social sciences. Advantages and disadvantages of using various
methodologies are also discussed along with research ethics.
Discussion questions:
1. What are the steps to the scientific method?
2. What ethical issues are discussed in the film?
This film is commonly found in library catalogues. If your specific university library does not
hold the title, request an interlibrary loan. You can also request the title from ProMedion
productions.
3
, The Uses of Social Research Methods
Homework Assignments
1. In Exercise 1.1, Ways of Knowing about Social Behavior in the text, students are asked to
compare different ways of knowing about the world. This could serve as a good introductory
exercise where students compare their taken-for-granted views of the world with information
gathered through data collection. Have students use authoritative sources for data sources, such
as information found on the Census Website, or General Social Survey Website.
2. To spark student interest in social research, have students access the Sociological Tour of
Cyberspace web site listed below. Ask students to investigate one of the links provided by Kearl
and be prepared to discuss what the site holds in class.
3. Have students access sociological journal articles, or you can provide students with a sample of
articles for analysis. With each article have students identify whether the research question is
exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory. Also have students identify whether or not the analysis is
qualitative or quantitative.
4. Have students bring in two or three Census Reports they find and print out online. With the
Census Reports have students identify the research question addressed, units of analysis, and any
relevant findings. Do the findings coincide with any knowledge previously found by personal
inquiry?
5. Have students complete exercise 1.3, but about a more relevant sociological research question,
such as crime or drug use. For crime, students can focus on their neighborhood, campus housing,
or apartment complex as a place where crime occurs or does not occur.
Internet Exercises
http://www.trinity.edu/~mkearl/
A Sociological Tour of Cyberspace
This site managed by Mike Kearl at Trinity University in Texas is a very comprehensive site for
sociologists teaching a variety of courses. A good exercise for week one is to direct students to locate this
site and identify areas of interest. There are links to resources for data analysis, methods and statistics,
subject-based inquiries and other topics. Kearl also provides a guide to writing a research paper,
resources for evaluating the credibility of resources on the web and ways for students to locate data to
examine hypotheses.
http://www.census.gov/
US Census Bureau web site
On the main front page students can access short fact sheets. Under people and households students can
click on a more specific topic, such as households or poverty to get more specific short fact sheets. Also
on the main page students can access the data finder where they can put in their specific county or city
and get demographic specifics. These can be used as authoritative data sources for class discussion.
http://publicsociology.com/
Homepage for Public Sociology
This website is a social reform movement to conduct a new type of sociology. When discussing basic
research, applied research, and evaluation research, have students also look at a different type of research
which is often debated and discussed; public research. Sociologists engaging in public research utilize
4
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading Chapter 1, students should be able to do the following:
1. Distinguish research from other ways of knowing about the world.
2. Understand the limitations of relying on authorities or personal experience as a basis for knowing
about the world.
3. Identify four steps of the scientific method.
4. Understand how the scientific method contributes to greater objectivity and intersubjectivity.
5. Appreciate the varied purposes of research.
6. Understand the value and importance of basic and applied research.
7. Identify the distinctions among descriptive, exploratory, explanatory, and evaluative research.
KEY TERMS – (page references from text in parentheses)
Applied Research (11) Personal Inquiry (5)
Authorities (4) Positivist View of Science (6)
Basic Research (11) Post-Positivist View of Science (7)
Descriptive Study (14) Premature Closure (6)
Evaluation Research (16) Qualitative Data Analysis (14)
Explanatory Research (15) Quantitative Data Analysis (15)
Exploratory Research (13) Research Question (2)
Factually testable (9) Scientific Method (6)
Intersubjectivity (7) Theory (10)
Objectivity (7) Unit of Analysis (3)
Overgeneralize (9)
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Introduction
a. What is a research question?
• A question about one or more topics or concepts that can be answered through research.
II. Research versus Other Ways of Knowing
a. Knowledge from Authorities
• Examples: Mom, Census Bureau, Social Institutions (Religion, School, Media)
1. Problems: may be misleading and/or incorrect
b. Knowledge from Personal Inquiry
• Inquiry that employs the senses’ evidence for arriving at knowledge
1. Problems: Overgeneralize from a limited number of cases
2. Perceive Selectivity
3. Premature Closure-tendency to stop searching once we think we have an answer
c. Strengths of the Scientific Method
• Positivist View of Science
• Post-positivist view of Science
• Objectivity- the ability to see the world as it really is.
• Intersubjectivity-agreements about reality that result from comparing the observations of
more than one observer.
1
,The Uses of Social Research Methods
• The Promotion of Skepticism and Intersubjectivity
• The Extensive Use of Communication
• Testing Ideas Factually
• The Use of Logic
• Theoretical Explanation
1. Theory-an explanation of how and why something is at is
III. The Uses and Purpose of Social Research
a. Uses of Social Research
• Basic Research-designed to add to our knowledge about the social world
• Applied Research-designed to have practical results and used in the immediate future
b. Purpose of Social Research
• Exploratory Research
1. Inductive research on a relatively unstudied topic in a new area
2. Qualitative data analysis
• Descriptive Research
1. Research designed to describe groups, activities, situations, or events. Provides detailed
and precise idea of the way things are, perhaps even how they have changed over time.
2. Quantitative data analysis
• Explanatory Research
1. Research designed to explain why subjects vary in one way or another; plays an
important role in theory building.
IV. Evaluation Research
a. Evaluation Research-research designed to assess the impacts of programs, policies, or legal
changes.
TEACHING TIPS
In Class Assignments
1. Bring in, or have students bring in, some articles from the newspaper about topics of interest to
sociologists. Compare journalistic coverage to social science interest. Discuss the sources of data
and what these reports might mean to the public and to interest groups. Discuss why it is so
difficult to get "final answers" on questions that are essentially tied to values, e.g. the death
penalty, abortion and others.
2. Have students spend a few minutes writing about why so many people spend so much time and
money on consulting psychics and horoscopes. Why are so many individuals willing to trust the
advice of sources, whose basis in evidence is somewhat suspect (from a scientific point of view)?
3. The media is another authoritative source from which we get information. Have students discuss
sources of media, those of which are more trustable authoritative sources and those which may be
more biased. Have students discuss ways in which the media may collect and present information
in ways that may be biased.
4. Create a survey with items that collects basic descriptive data about students as well responses to
questions about political opinions and attitudes. Students should generate a code name for
2
, Chapter 1
themselves. This survey should be collected and then distributed to students for analysis
throughout the semester. (See Chapters 6, 9, and 15 in this manual for exercises that use
information gathered in this survey). This test or survey should include different types of
questions (closed-ended and open ended), with allowance for data analysis with nominal, ordinal
and other levels of measurement. The instrument should include questions that are clearly
worded, as well as those that are likely to be misunderstood by students. A sample pre-test is
shown in the Appendix.
5. Have students spend a class time in a student union, or place on campus heavily populated by
students on campus. To demonstrate the example of knowledge by personal inquiry, have
students do a one hour observational research of campus students. Students can be observing
whether or not students are studying, socializing, attending or skipping class. Are certain types of
students more likely to engage in certain types of activities? What do they conclude about the
student body after these observations? How does this activity coincide with the example and
issues that go along with knowledge by personal inquiry?
Videos
There are many films that can be used to begin a discussion of research methods in sociology.
1. Sociological Thinking and Research
Focusing on a sociological study of Times Square, this video discusses how research is used to
answer key questions about society. The researchers discuss the formulation of research
questions, employ multiple methodologies and explain how their findings are used by
stakeholders and other interested audiences.
This film can be found by writing to Insight Media, 121 West 85th Street, New York, NY 10024.
Discussion questions:
1. Why is itmportant to spend the time to develop appropriate experimental designs for each
research question?
2. What was the study done in Time Square? What was researcher’s experimental design?
3. Why is it important to have a sociological imagination when developing research questions?
2. Research Methods for the Social Sciences
This video provides an overview of the research process and the challenges of applying the
scientific method in the social sciences. Advantages and disadvantages of using various
methodologies are also discussed along with research ethics.
Discussion questions:
1. What are the steps to the scientific method?
2. What ethical issues are discussed in the film?
This film is commonly found in library catalogues. If your specific university library does not
hold the title, request an interlibrary loan. You can also request the title from ProMedion
productions.
3
, The Uses of Social Research Methods
Homework Assignments
1. In Exercise 1.1, Ways of Knowing about Social Behavior in the text, students are asked to
compare different ways of knowing about the world. This could serve as a good introductory
exercise where students compare their taken-for-granted views of the world with information
gathered through data collection. Have students use authoritative sources for data sources, such
as information found on the Census Website, or General Social Survey Website.
2. To spark student interest in social research, have students access the Sociological Tour of
Cyberspace web site listed below. Ask students to investigate one of the links provided by Kearl
and be prepared to discuss what the site holds in class.
3. Have students access sociological journal articles, or you can provide students with a sample of
articles for analysis. With each article have students identify whether the research question is
exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory. Also have students identify whether or not the analysis is
qualitative or quantitative.
4. Have students bring in two or three Census Reports they find and print out online. With the
Census Reports have students identify the research question addressed, units of analysis, and any
relevant findings. Do the findings coincide with any knowledge previously found by personal
inquiry?
5. Have students complete exercise 1.3, but about a more relevant sociological research question,
such as crime or drug use. For crime, students can focus on their neighborhood, campus housing,
or apartment complex as a place where crime occurs or does not occur.
Internet Exercises
http://www.trinity.edu/~mkearl/
A Sociological Tour of Cyberspace
This site managed by Mike Kearl at Trinity University in Texas is a very comprehensive site for
sociologists teaching a variety of courses. A good exercise for week one is to direct students to locate this
site and identify areas of interest. There are links to resources for data analysis, methods and statistics,
subject-based inquiries and other topics. Kearl also provides a guide to writing a research paper,
resources for evaluating the credibility of resources on the web and ways for students to locate data to
examine hypotheses.
http://www.census.gov/
US Census Bureau web site
On the main front page students can access short fact sheets. Under people and households students can
click on a more specific topic, such as households or poverty to get more specific short fact sheets. Also
on the main page students can access the data finder where they can put in their specific county or city
and get demographic specifics. These can be used as authoritative data sources for class discussion.
http://publicsociology.com/
Homepage for Public Sociology
This website is a social reform movement to conduct a new type of sociology. When discussing basic
research, applied research, and evaluation research, have students also look at a different type of research
which is often debated and discussed; public research. Sociologists engaging in public research utilize
4
