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PATHO EXAM 1 NSG 533 2026
REAL QUESTIONS WITH EXPERTLY
VERIFIED ANSWERS.
Describe the pathophysiological basis of reperfusion injury -
correct answer -When cells are deprived of oxygen, they use their
ATP stores and accumulate purine catabolites hypoxanthine and
xanthine. In reperfusion injury these are metabolized into free
radicals that cause membrane damage and calcium overload.
Cardia ischemia and reperfusion causes excessive reactive
oxygen species (ROS), pH alterations, osmotic changes, gap
junction changes, inflammatory signaling, and calcium overload of
the mitochondria. These changes also lead to the opening of a
large conductance pore on the mitochondrial membrane called
the mitochondrial permeability transition pore with massive
escape of ATP and solutes leading to cell death activation
(apoptosis).
Discuss systematic manifestations of cellular injury - correct
answer -1. Fever
2. Increased heart rate
3. increase in number of leukocytes (leukocytosis)
4. presence of cellular enzymes in extracellular fluid
5. Lactate dehydrogenase
6. Creatine Kinase (CK)
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7. Aspartate aminotransferase (AST)
8. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT)
9. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP)
10. Amylase
11. Aldolase
12. Troponins
Explain the pathogenesis and pathophysiologic effect(s) of
bilirubin and fat accumulation in the cell - correct answer -Two
examples of endogenous accumulations are lipids (fat) and
bilirubin.
-Fatty changes occur most often in liver cells but can also be a
problem in myocardial cells. The liver handles fats and
synthesizes complex fats and lipoproteins all the time. Slow
accumulation of fat within hepatic or myocardial cells usually does
not impair the function of those cells until the problem is extreme.
However, fatty change can occur on an acute basis and can lead
to acute heart or liver failure.
-Bilirubin is essentially a pigment that is released when RBCs
break down or are destroyed. This bilirubin is released or diffuses
into the blood where it is called unconjugated (indirect) bilirubin.
Unconjugated bilirubin is fat-soluble and cannot be eliminated
through the kidney (urine). The unconjugated bilirubin is then
taken up by the liver cells, bound to a substance called glucuronic
, Page | 3
acid, and becomes bilirubin glucuronide or conjugated (direct)
bilirubin. Conjugate bilirubin is water soluble and can be
eliminated through the kidney.
How do you calculate incidence and prevalence of a disease? -
correct answer -The incidence of a disease, as it is usually
defined, is the number of new cases occurring in a given
population within a given time period-usually 1 year. For example,
the incidence of Down Syndrome in the US is 1 in 690 births
(1/690 x 100 = 0.14%)
On the other hand, the prevalence of a disease involves the
number of cases existing (both old and new) in a given time
period. The prevalence of Down Syndrome in the US is 400,000.
For a population of about 314 million that is a prevalence of
0.13% (400,000/314,000,000 x 100 = 0.13%). The incidence and
prevalence can also be expressed as a percentage.
Describe the effect of free cytosolic calcium. - correct answer -A
destructive agent. Calcium is normally removed from the cytosol
by adenosine triphosphate (ATP)- dependent calcium pumps. In
normal cells, calcium is bound to buffering proteins, such as
calbindin or paralbumin, and is contained in the endoplasmic
reticulum and the mitochondria. If there is abnormal permeability
of calcium ion channels, direct damage to membranes, or
depletion of ATP (i.e., hypoxic injury), calcium level increases in
the cytosol. If the free calcium cannot be buffered or pumped out
, Page | 4
of cells, uncontrolled enzyme activation takes place, causing
further damage. Uncontrolled entry of calcium into the cytosol is
an important final pathway in many causes of cell death.
The process of nuclear shrinkage. It is irreversible condition of
chromatin in the nucleus of a cell wall undergoing necrosis or
apoptosis. - correct answer -Pyknosis
he destructive fragmentation of the nucleus of a cell- its chromatin
is disrupted irregularly throughout the cytoplasm - correct answer
-karyorrhexis
Complete dissolution of the chromatin of a dying cell due to
enzymatic degradation by endonucleases. - correct answer -
Karyolysis
-these 3 changes (Pyknosis, karyorrhexis, and karyolysis lead to
destruction of the nucleus- which will eventually cause the cell to
die)
Discuss the relationship of apoptosis to AIDS - correct answer -
HIV indirectly triggers programmed cell death/apoptosis that
PATHO EXAM 1 NSG 533 2026
REAL QUESTIONS WITH EXPERTLY
VERIFIED ANSWERS.
Describe the pathophysiological basis of reperfusion injury -
correct answer -When cells are deprived of oxygen, they use their
ATP stores and accumulate purine catabolites hypoxanthine and
xanthine. In reperfusion injury these are metabolized into free
radicals that cause membrane damage and calcium overload.
Cardia ischemia and reperfusion causes excessive reactive
oxygen species (ROS), pH alterations, osmotic changes, gap
junction changes, inflammatory signaling, and calcium overload of
the mitochondria. These changes also lead to the opening of a
large conductance pore on the mitochondrial membrane called
the mitochondrial permeability transition pore with massive
escape of ATP and solutes leading to cell death activation
(apoptosis).
Discuss systematic manifestations of cellular injury - correct
answer -1. Fever
2. Increased heart rate
3. increase in number of leukocytes (leukocytosis)
4. presence of cellular enzymes in extracellular fluid
5. Lactate dehydrogenase
6. Creatine Kinase (CK)
, Page | 2
7. Aspartate aminotransferase (AST)
8. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT)
9. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP)
10. Amylase
11. Aldolase
12. Troponins
Explain the pathogenesis and pathophysiologic effect(s) of
bilirubin and fat accumulation in the cell - correct answer -Two
examples of endogenous accumulations are lipids (fat) and
bilirubin.
-Fatty changes occur most often in liver cells but can also be a
problem in myocardial cells. The liver handles fats and
synthesizes complex fats and lipoproteins all the time. Slow
accumulation of fat within hepatic or myocardial cells usually does
not impair the function of those cells until the problem is extreme.
However, fatty change can occur on an acute basis and can lead
to acute heart or liver failure.
-Bilirubin is essentially a pigment that is released when RBCs
break down or are destroyed. This bilirubin is released or diffuses
into the blood where it is called unconjugated (indirect) bilirubin.
Unconjugated bilirubin is fat-soluble and cannot be eliminated
through the kidney (urine). The unconjugated bilirubin is then
taken up by the liver cells, bound to a substance called glucuronic
, Page | 3
acid, and becomes bilirubin glucuronide or conjugated (direct)
bilirubin. Conjugate bilirubin is water soluble and can be
eliminated through the kidney.
How do you calculate incidence and prevalence of a disease? -
correct answer -The incidence of a disease, as it is usually
defined, is the number of new cases occurring in a given
population within a given time period-usually 1 year. For example,
the incidence of Down Syndrome in the US is 1 in 690 births
(1/690 x 100 = 0.14%)
On the other hand, the prevalence of a disease involves the
number of cases existing (both old and new) in a given time
period. The prevalence of Down Syndrome in the US is 400,000.
For a population of about 314 million that is a prevalence of
0.13% (400,000/314,000,000 x 100 = 0.13%). The incidence and
prevalence can also be expressed as a percentage.
Describe the effect of free cytosolic calcium. - correct answer -A
destructive agent. Calcium is normally removed from the cytosol
by adenosine triphosphate (ATP)- dependent calcium pumps. In
normal cells, calcium is bound to buffering proteins, such as
calbindin or paralbumin, and is contained in the endoplasmic
reticulum and the mitochondria. If there is abnormal permeability
of calcium ion channels, direct damage to membranes, or
depletion of ATP (i.e., hypoxic injury), calcium level increases in
the cytosol. If the free calcium cannot be buffered or pumped out
, Page | 4
of cells, uncontrolled enzyme activation takes place, causing
further damage. Uncontrolled entry of calcium into the cytosol is
an important final pathway in many causes of cell death.
The process of nuclear shrinkage. It is irreversible condition of
chromatin in the nucleus of a cell wall undergoing necrosis or
apoptosis. - correct answer -Pyknosis
he destructive fragmentation of the nucleus of a cell- its chromatin
is disrupted irregularly throughout the cytoplasm - correct answer
-karyorrhexis
Complete dissolution of the chromatin of a dying cell due to
enzymatic degradation by endonucleases. - correct answer -
Karyolysis
-these 3 changes (Pyknosis, karyorrhexis, and karyolysis lead to
destruction of the nucleus- which will eventually cause the cell to
die)
Discuss the relationship of apoptosis to AIDS - correct answer -
HIV indirectly triggers programmed cell death/apoptosis that
