Exam 3 V2: BIOS255/ BIOS 255 | Anatomy & Physiology III (A&P 3) | 2026–2027 Latest Update | Verified Questions & Answers | Chamberlain

tps:// Exam 3 V2: BIOS255/ BIOS 255 | Anatomy & Physiology III (A&P 3) | 2026–2027 Latest Update | Verified Questions & Answers | Chamberlain Q: What are the functions of the immune system? Answer Protect the body from and fight off pathogens Q: Innate immunity Answer Immune defense mechanisms you are born with Non specific resistance Q: What is the first line of defense? Answer Physical and chemical barriers Q: What are examples of physical and chemical barriers? Answer Skin Mucous membranes Sebum Perspiration Q: What is the second line of defense? Answer Inflammation Interferon Compliment Fever Nk cells Phagocytosis Q: What is the third line of defense? Answer Adaptive immunity or specific resistance Q: What are two parts of the third line of defense? Answer Cell mediated immunity Antibody mediated immunity Q: What are the two types of non phagocyte killing Answer Granulocytes( neutrophils and eosinophils)and nk cells Q: What are the granulocytes that don't use phagocytosis? Answer Neutrophils bacteria Eosinophils parasitic worms, allergies and inflammation Both by means of chemical release Q: How do nk cells work? Answer Recognition and attachment Secretion of performing and granzymes Lysis and detachment Q: How Is the process of phagocytosis? Answer Chemotaxis Adhesion Engulfment Formation of phagosome Add digestive enzymes to vesicle with the pathogen killing the pathogen Endocytosis of the residual body Q: What are the four cardinal signs of inflammation? Answer redness, heat, swelling, pain Q: What are pyrogens? Answer Cause a fever Q: What are the two types of pyrogens? Answer exogenous and endogenous Q: Exogenous Answer Produced from outside of the cell Q: Endogenous Answer Released from body cells like neutrophils and macrophages (ex. Interleukin I) Q: What are interferons? Answer interfere with viral infections of host cells Q: What are complement proteins? Answer Cascade of proteins join to form a membrane attach complex that lyses the membrane of the pathogen Q: Where is cell mediated immunity carried out by Answer T cell lymphocytes Q: Where is antibody mediated immunity carried out by? Answer B cell lymphocytes Q: What is cell mediated immunity triggered by Answer Endogenous antigens Q: What is antibody mediated immunity triggered by Answer Exogenous antigens Q: What leukocytes are initiated during specific immunity Answer Lymphocytes Q: What are epitopes? Answer the part of an antigen molecule to which an antibody attaches itself Where are antigens found? Answer Found on some food, dust Where are antigens produced Answer They are chemicals produced by the pathogen What is humoral immunity Answer antibody-mediated immunity What is cellular immunity cell-mediated immunity In cell mediated immunity what do the helper T cells do Recruit other wbcs such as B cells, cytotoxic T cells and macrophages to the area of infection What is another name for helper T cells CD4 cells What activates the helper T cells MHC II In cell mediated immunity what do cytotoxic T cells do They secrete perforin and granezymes to destroy cells infected with a pathogen What activates cytotoxic T cells MHC I What is another name for cytotoxic T cells CD8 cells What is the role of plasma cell secrete antibodies activated by MHC I What is the role of activated B cells Differentiate into plasma cells What is the role of memory cells remain in the lymphoid tissue to rapidly proliferate and differentiate upon subsequent exposure to the same pathogen What are the 5 classes of antibodies? IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, IgE How are antibodies named Named for how many y shaped structures there are Monomer is 1 Dimer is 2 Pentamer is 5 What is the role of IgG most common 80% Ig. crosses placenta. opsonin and fixes complement. responsible for secondary immune response. What is the role of IgM First antibody produced during infection, pentameter What is the role of IgE allergic reactions and parasite infections Transmembrane protein on mast cells and basophils What is the role of IgD Transmembrane protein involved in B cell activation What is the role of IgA Found in exocrine secretions, found as a monomer and dimmer What is the primary immune response Slow rise slow decline IgM first to respond then IgG What is the secondary immune response Fast rise, slow decline IgG first to respond then IgM What is naturally acquired passive immunity Happens during pregnancy as antibodies move from the mothers bloodstream to the fetus's Antibodies also transferred from breast milk. Antibodies provide temporary protection from infancy to childhood IgA What is naturally acquired active immunity Exposure to the chickenpox and creating antibodies due to exposure What is artificially acquired passive immunity Giving IV antibodies to someone exposed to rabies What is artificially acquired active immunity Being given a vaccination that your body must fight off and create antibodies Type I hypersensitivity IgE mediated Topical (atopy) Systemic (anaphylaxis) Includes food allergies, asthma, and hay fever Type II hypersensitivity Antibody mediated reaction Incompatible blood transfusion Type III hypersensitivity Immune complex mediated Autoimmune disorders like RA, Graves' disease, systemic lupus and myasthenia gravis TypeIV hypersensitivity Delayed or T cell mediated hypersensitivity Poison ivy, TB test, Type I diabetes, MS and contact dermatitis Ventilation vs respiration ventilation- the simple movement of air into and out of the lungs respiration- the exchange of gases between the lungs, the blood, and the tissues of the body External pulmonary respiration exchange of gases between alveoli and blood Internal pulmonary respiration the exchange of gases between blood in systemic capillaries and tissue cells, the blood loses O2 and gains CO2. Internal tissue respiration exchange of gases between blood in systemic capillaries and tissue cells What are the functions of the respiratory system Communication (speech, laughing, crying) Olfaction Ph balance control of the levels of CO2, 7.35-7.45 Blood pressure regulation Removal of abdominal contents Filtration of blood Production of platelets Promoting lymph and blood flow What are the principal components of the respiratory system Nose Pharynx Larynx Trachea Lungs Bronchi Bronchioles Alveoli What makes up the upper respiratory system nose, pharynx What makes up the lower respiratory system larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli What is the conducting zone structures Everything else What is the respiratory zone structures Terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and alveoli What are the parts of the nasal cavity External nares Nasal septum Nasal conchae Respiratory membrane Paranasal sinuses What is the function of the paranasal sinuses filter, warm, and humidify air What are the four paranasal sinuses? frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, maxillary What are the 3 parts of the pharynx nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx Where does the nasopharynx originate? Sphenoid bone to the soft palate Where does the oropharynx extend? From soft palate to the bottom of the tongue Where does the laryngopharynx extend Tongue to epitglottis What are the parts of the larynx Vocal folds Vestibular folds Cartilages of the larynx What are the cartilages of the larynx? -Epiglottis (1) -Thyroid (1) -Cricoid (1) -Arytenoid (2) -Corniculate (2) -Cuneiform (2) What parts make up the trachea? Incomplete c shaped trachea cartilage Carina What is the carina bifurcation of trachea into two main bronchi Coughing reflex What are the lobes of the left lung superior and inferior What are the lobes of the right lung superior, middle, inferior What are the fissures of the right lung horizontal fissure and oblique fissure What are the fissures of the left lung oblique What is the role of the bronchi? Creates a tree of distribution into the lungs Bronchoconstriction/bronchodilator to help control air flow into the lungs What is the role of bronchioles They open and close to change the amount of air reaching the lungs What is the role of alveoli site of gas exchange between air and blood What is type I alveolar cell epithelial cell that composes the walls of the individual alveoli What is type II alveolar cell produce pulmonary surfactant to coat the type I alveolar cells What is the phagocytic dust cells Clears debris in the alveoli What is the parietal pleura lines the thoracic cavity What is the interpleural space Filled with serous fluid to reduce friction What is the visceral pleura Attached to the outside of the lungs What is the respiratory cycle one complete inspiration and expiration What muscles are used for forceful inhalation Diaphragm External intercostals Scalene muscles Sternocleidomastoid Pectoralis major What are the muscles used for forceful exhalation Internal intercostals Recuts abdominis Transversus abdominis Internal/external obliques Which nerves are responsible for ventilation Phrenic nerve (C3,C4 and C5) controls the diaphragm Vagus nerve Posterior thoracic nerve controls intercostal muscles What is the flow of air? Bronchi--Bronchioles--respiratory bronchioles--alveolar ducts--alveoli How does air flow? from high to low pressure How are volume and pressure related? inversely proportional When volume goes down pressure goes up When we exhale what happens to the thoracic cavity? We create less volume and thus drive up pressure When we inhale what happens to the thoracic cavity? We need to create more volume in the thoracic cavity thus driving pressure down What is Boyle's law Pressure and volume are inversely related What are the factors that create resistance to air flow? Airway diameter Alveolar surface tension (surfactant produced by type II alveolar cells) Compliance (ability of the lungs and thoracic cage to expand) What is tidal volume amount of air inhaled and exhaled during a normal breathing cycle. 500ml What is inspiratory volume? max volume of air that can be inhaled after normal inhalation 3000ml What is expiratory volume amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled 1200ml What is residual volume amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced expiration 1300 ml What is anatomical dead space Amount of air that remains in the conducting zone 150ml How much oxygen is in air 21% What is the equation for minute ventilation ? tidal volume x respiratory rate What is Dalton's law? Each gas exerts partial pressure if no other gas is present P total= p1 + p2 + p3 What is Henry's law Gases move across a membrane is directly proportional to both the partial pressure of the gas as well as the solubility coefficient Which is more soluble in water co2 or o2 Co2 by 20x What is ventilation perfusion coupling matching of alveolar ventilation with pulmonary blood perfusion What percent of oxygen is transported dissolved in plasma 1.5% What present of oxygen is transported on hemoglobin 98.5% What factors affect hemoglobin saturation with oxygen Partial pressure of carbon dioxide Temperature Ph 2,3 BPG The makeup of Hb itself What is left shifted hb It it has greater affinity than normal to o2 more likely to pick up oxygen What is right shifted hb It has less affinity than normal to pick up oxygen so it is more likely to release oxygen What percent of co2 is transported in plasma 7% What percent of carbon dioxide is transported by Hb 23% What percent of carbon dioxide is converted into bicarbonate 70% What is the dorsal respiratory group Sets rate and controls diaphragm and intercostals during normal breathing What is the ventral respiratory group Controls muscles of inspiration and expiration during forceful breathing under the guidance of the DRG What is pontine respiratory group Changes breathing patterns based on sleep, speech, exercise and emotions How does hyperventilation affect oxygen saturation Increases oxygen saturation and lowers heart rate How does hypoventilation affect oxygen saturation? Lower oxygen saturation and elevates heart rate What are two forms of COPD chronic bronchitis and emphysema What is emphysema a condition in which the air sacs of the lungs are damaged and enlarged, causing breathlessness. Barrel Chester What is chronic bronchitis inflammation of the bronchi and bronchioles due to chronic exposure to irritants Difficulty exhaling What is the most common form of lung cancer? squamous cell carcinoma What is the most dangerous form of lung cancer small cell carcinoma What is SARS? severe acute respiratory syndrome Due to a viral infection Covid -19 Patient will exhibit flu symptoms How to calculate inspiratory capacity TV + IRV Equation for vital capacity VC = IRV + TV + ERV Equation for total lung capacity TLC= TV + IRV + ERV + RV Equation for residual volume (TV+IRV)-(TV+ERV) Equation for functional residual capacity FRC=ERV+RV Non-Specific Resistance (Innate Immunity) Immune defense mechanisms you are born with. physical and chemical barriers (1st line of defense)4 Skin, mucus membranes, sebum, perspiration Internal Defenses (2nd line of defense) 6 Inflammation, interferon, compliment, fever, NK cells (immunological surveillance), phagocytosis Specific Resistance (Adaptive Immunity) Develops over time and forms a memory for specific antigens. 3rd line of defense 2 Cell mediated immunity and antibody mediated immunity Non phagocytic killing 3 Granulocytes like neutrophils and eosinophils and NK cells Granulocytes release what chemical granzymes to attack local pathogens Neutrophils attack bacteria Eosinophils attack 3 parasitic worms, allegies, and inflammation NK Cells function 2 Recognition and attachment secretion of perforins and granzymes lysis and detachment Interferons function Interfere with viral replication Complement function cascade of proteins join to form a membrane attack complex that lyses the membrane of the pathogen. Pyrogen causes a fever, exogenous from outside the cell, endogenous by releasing from body cells like neutrophils and macrophages (Ex: Interleukin I). 4 cardinal signs of inflammation Redness (rubor) Swelling (tumor) Heat (calor) Pain (dolor) Clonal deletion (self tolerance) lymphocytes that attack self antigens are destroyed. Cell mediated immunity is carried out by T cell lymphocytes Cell mediated immunity is triggered by endogenous antigens MCH I triggers activation of cytotoxic T cells MCH II triggers activation of Helper T cells Helper T Cells (CD4 cells) recruit what 3 things to the area of infection Recruit other WBC's (B cells, cytotoxic T cells, Macrophages) to the area of infection Cytotoxic T cells (CD8 cells) secrete what 2 things to destroy what Secrete perforin and granzymes to destroy cells infected with a pathogen Memory T cells live for ___ to do what? Live for years to create future immunity Antibody mediated immunity (humoral) is carried out by B cell lymphocytes Antibody mediated immunity is triggered by exogenous antigens Activated B cells differentiate into plasma cells Plasma cells create what and are activated by? antibodies; activated by MHC I Antigens are molecules that the body reacts with to elicit what and how do they present themselves? a response from the immune system. Present themselves as proteins in a cell membrane. Epitope definition and does it stimulate an immune response? Regions on the outer part of the membrane or outer surface of an antigen that our immune system recognizes. Stimulates an immune response Lymphatic system functions 3 digestion, restore fluid from blood back to the cardiovascular system, immunity lymph fluid that has escaped into interstitial space from the blood. Very similar to plasma except location and lack of rbc in plasma Organs of the immune system 5 spleen, lymph nodes, bone marrow, thymus, MALT Pulmonary ventilation definition and what is it driven by the act of breathing, the physical movement of bringing air into and out of the lungs. Driven by a simple pressure gradient. External respiration exchange of gases between the lungs and blood Internal respiration exchange of gases between the blood and tissues Upper Respiratory system 4 nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx Lower Respiratory system 3 trachea, bronchi, lungs conducting zone is cavities and tubes inside and outside of the lungs that distributes, warms, filters, conducts air into lungs, nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles respiratory zone is what and consists of what 4 tubes and tissues inside the lungs where gas exchange occurs, terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli Type 1 cells of alveolus are what type of epithelium, what is it the site of, and it covers what percentage of surface? simple squamous epithelium, sites of gas exchange, covers 95% of surface Type 2 cells (great alveolar cells) of alveolus repair what and secrete what? repair the alveolar epithelium when damaged, secret pulmonary surfactant Alveolar macrophages keep alveoli free of debris by Keep alveoli free of debris by phagocytizing dust particles that escape entrapment by mucus Boyle's Law The pressure of a given quantity of gas is inversely proportional to its volume. inverse relationship between pressure and volume. Pressure flows from high to low. increase volume=decrease pressure and vice versa External Respiration is O2 ___ and CO2 ___ O2 loading and CO2 unloading Internal Respiration is O2 ___ and CO2 ___ O2 unloading and CO2 loading Muscles of inhalation and exhalation Factors affecting pulmonary ventilation 2 Lung compliance and airway resistance lung compliance definition and is it negatively or positively affected by surface tension? the ease with which the lungs can be stretched, larger lung compliance=easier to inspire, negatively affected by surface tension how does surface tension affect pulmonary ventilation (what does it do to the alveoli?) the force causes the alveoli to resist expansion and potentially collapse how does surfactant affect pulmonary ventilation and what is it secreted by? secreted by type II cells, acts as detergent that decreases surface tension, increases lung compliance, makes inspiration easier and more efficient What happens when air way resistance increases increase pressure, making breathing more difficult how does contractile activity of smooth muscle affect pulmonary ventilation 2 decreases bronchiole radius, and ultimately increases resistance how does mucus secretion affect pulmonary ventilation conditions will stimulate mucus secretions which increase the resistance to air flow ex: allergic reactions Tidal volume volume of air inhaled and exhaled in one cycle of breathing (~500mL) Inspiratory Reserve Volume Air in excess of tidal volume that can be inhaled with maximum effort Expiratory Reserve Volume Air in excess of tidal volume that can be exhaled with maximum effort Residual Volume Air remaining in lungs after maximum expiration Inspiratory Capacity Maximum amount of air that can be inhaled after a normal tidal expiration Vital Capacity Total amount of air that can be inhaled then exhaled with maximum effort Total Lung Capacity Maximum amount of air the lungs can contain Minute Respiratory Volume MVR equation Tidal Volume x Respiratory Rate Ex: 500mL/breath x 12 breaths/min=6,000 mL/min=6L/min Answer should always be in L/min Eupnea relaxed, quiet breathing Apnea temporary cessation of breathing Dyspnea labored, gasping breathing; shortness of breath Tachypnea accelerated respiration; rapid breathing Hyperventilation increased pulmonary ventilation in excess of metabolic demand Hypoventilation reduced pulmonary ventilation leading to an increase in blood CO2 Partial pressure of a gas proportion of pressure of the entire gas that is due to presence of the individual gas. Depends on fractional concentration of gas. Dalton's Law Ptotal=P1+P2+P3...Pn Total pressure of gas mixture equation Pgas=%gas x Ptotal Composition of Air ___% nitrogen and ___%oxygen 79% nitrogen and 21% oxygen Sea level air pressure is how many mm Hg? 760 mm Hg Air pressure how to calculate P air=760 mmHG=Pn2 + Po2 Pn2=0.79 x 760 mmHg=600 mmHg Po2=0.21 x 760 mmHg=160 mmHg Percentage of oxygen transported 2 98.5% bound to hemoglobin 1.5% dissolved in plasma Percentage of carbon dioxide transported 3 7% dissolved in plasma 23% carried by Hb as carbaminohemoglobin 70% transported at bicarobnate ions HCO3- 1 hemoglobin contains how many heme groups 4 heme groups Each heme group can bind up to how many oxygen molecules 1 oxygen molecule Hb + O2 oxyhemoglobin Saturation of hemoglobin is the measure of measure of how much oxygen is bound to hemoglobin. 100% saturation=all 4 binding sites have oxygen bound In arterial blood how saturated is Hb in % 98% saturated In mixed venous blood, PO2 is at how many mm Hg and what percentage of hemoglobin is saturated 40 mmHg, Hemoglobin is 75% saturated meaning 3 out of 4 binding sites are occupied by oxygen Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve relationship between PO2 and Hb saturation. Any shift in the curve denotes a change in binding affinity. Right shift of dissociation curve Decrease in affinity, O2 is more easily released from Hb, more unloading of O2 at the tissues Left shift of dissociation curve Increase in affinity, O2 is more tightly bound to Hb, less unloading of O2 at the tissues Higher temp effects on dissociation curve active tissues (tissue metabolism increases), shifts right, decrease affinity, more O2 unloading in tissues, more O2 delivery to tissues pH effects on dissociation curve Bohr Effect=decrease affinity, lower pH increase O2 unloading at the tissues, active tissues produce more H+ ions (more acidic) which decreases pH in active tissues and causes shift to the right CO2 (Carbamino Effect) effects on dissociation curve CO2 reacts with hemoglobin to form carbaminohemoglobin, HbCO2 decreases affinity of Hb for oxygen, increased metabolic activity increase O2 and more increased O2 unloading in active tissues healthy lungs and high compliance means lungs are too pliable and have a lower than normal level of elastic recoil respiratory distress syndrome common breathing disorder that affects newborns What would you do if premature infant was suffering from respiratory distress syndrome breathing tube in baby's windpipe ventilator b Extra oxygen Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) Artificial surfactant Medicines for calming region on antigen that makes immune response epitope conducting zone structures provides passageways for air to travel into and out of the lung nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and most bronchioles. Your oxygen and carbon dioxide movement are going to occur through what process respiration inhalation and exhalation between the atmosphere and alveoli of the lungs external respiration What cells are responsible for humoral mediated immunity B cells type of defense mechanism that prevents viral dna replication interferon innate immunity what are compliment proteins plasma proteins that can be activated directly by pathogens or indirectly by pathogen-bound antibody interferons T cells, natural defenses. Interferes with viral replication. Boyles law during inhalation thoracic volume increases causing the interpleural pressure and alveoli pressure to decrease what is a compliment system membrane attack complex opsonization innate immunity name of the nerve that controls the diaphragm phrenic In eupnea exhalation begins when the diaphragm and external intercostals must contract huge spike showing antibodies response secondary exposure What is the role of the antigen presenting cells in immunity *all of the above answer if you accumulated CO2 what will happen to your blood pH pH and other bodily fluids decrease, making them too acidic. where is red bone marrow found medullary cavity of flat bones such as the sternum and pelvic girdle What is recognized as a foreign substance and provokes a immune reaction antigens partial pressure of oxygen and atrial blood is 100 mm Hg IGG is the antibody that is mostly associated with secondary immune response two layered membrane that covers the surface of the lungs inner pleura (visceral pleura) organs of your immune system Primary lymphoid organs: bone marrow and the thymus. What is a difference between lymph and interstitial fluid location What is cessation of breathing during sleep sleep apnea During apnea, there is no movement of the muscles of inhalation, and the volume of the lungs initially remains unchanged. Left-shifted curve on partial pressure of O2 is caused by High pH (more basic) Low temperature Low 2,3 - BPG Fetal hB (hB F) methemoglobinemia High O2 affinity hB variants Right-shifted curve on partial pressure of O2 is caused by Low pH (more acidic) Increased CO2 High temperature High 2,3 -BPG Low O2 affinity hB variants how does co2 affect blood pH pH and other bodily fluids decrease, making them too acidic. factors the affect affinity of hemoglobin temperature hydrogen ions intraerythrocytic 2,3-DPG carbon dioxide What is a pneumothorax air in pleural space; collapsed lung With Boyle's law, as the pressure falls during ascent, an inversely proportional rise in gas volume occurs causing expansion of air in gas-filled bodily chambers such as a closed pneumothorax. be able to label this graph TTIERV Signs of inflammation Rubor (redness) Dolar (Pain) Calor (heat) Tumor (swelling) differences between helper t cells, memory t cells, cytotoxic t cells cytotoxic T cells destroy virus-infected cells and tumor cells helper T cells secrete cytokines to activate other cells in the immune system triggering a specific immune response, stimulates killer t cells, macrophages and b cells Describe ventilation Ventilation is the movement of air in and out of the lungs. Air moves due to pressure gradients contracting the thoracic muscles and diaphragm. Describe internal respiration The exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen between the cells of the body and blood by fluid bathing the cells. Oxygen diffuses out from the blood into the tissue. Describe external respiration Breathing and the exchange of gases between the lungs and external environment as well as between the alveoli and surface and blood stream. Flu vaccine A flu vaccine will only protect you for about 6 months. The vaccine reduces the risk of illness but is not 100% effective. quiet breathing diaphragm and external intercostals forceful inhalation muscles sternocleidomastoid serratus posterior pectorals minor forceful exhalation muscles serratus posterior inferior ab muscles internal intercostals