BIOD102/ BIOD102 Module 6 V2– Essential Biology II (Portage Learning) 2026/2027 | Verified Q&A | 100% Correct Answers | A+

BIOD102/ BIOD102 Module 6 V2– Essential Biology II (Portage Learning) 2026/2027 | Verified Q&A | 100% Correct Answers | A+ Q: What is the difference between public health and clinical practice? Answer Clinical practice focuses on an individual and public health focuses on a population. Q: What does the term "population" mean in reference to public health? Answer The term 'population' is a broad term that may refer to people within a certain geographic location, a specific nationality or race, or those with unique characteristics, such as the homeless, those infected with HIV, or marginalized persons Q: What does epidemiology mean? Answer Distribution of a disease Epidemiology is the study of how disease is distributed within a population and the identification of the factors that determine that distribution. Q: What are the 5 objectives of epidemiology? Answer (1) identifying the cause of a disease and important risk factors, (2) determining the burden of disease, (3) studying the natural history of a disease, (4) evaluating preventative and therapeutic models, and (5) developing public policy. Q: What is etiology? Answer study of the cause of disease Etiology is the mechanism that results in or causes disease. All diseases are associated with risk factors; behaviors, genetic susceptibility, and geographic locations are agents that may play a role in influencing the development of a disease Q: What is the difference between morbidity and mortality? Answer Morbidity refers to symptoms or disabilities that occur from a disease, morbidity is another broad term that describes suffering. In addition, several morbidities can exist at one time and are referred to as co-morbidities. while mortality refers to the death of a person Q: What is the definition of a population? Answer person, place, and time Population is any sizable aggregate of people who meet the membership criteria to be included in a specific person group. When defining a population, three metrics must be addressed: Q: How is a person defined? Answer Person is defined by the characteristics of age, gender, race, ethnicity, and occupation. Q: How is a place defined? Answer Place refers to the physical location of the person, such as the country, state, county, city, or occupational location the person is in. Q: How is time defined? Answer Time may be defined as a certain season, calendar year, life stage, interval time periods, fixed time periods, or person-years (to be discussed) Q: Explain the "burden" of disease Answer The burden of disease refers to the impact of a health problem and the resulting morbidities. Burden can be assessed in a variety of ways, such as broad economic impact, individual financial loss, and quality of life that may be lost Q: What is the natural history of a disease? Answer The natural history of a disease refers to the transmission, development, and outcomes of a given disease Q: What is the preventative model? Answer The preventative model or therapeutic model refers to the modes and measures of healthcare delivery Q: Who was the first guy to try out a small pox vaccine and how did he go about it? Answer Edward Jenner. Edward Jenner (May 17, 1749-January 26, 1823) was a scientist skilled in surgical procedures among many other biological disciplines. Jenner is credited for testing his hypothesis that inoculation with cowpox prevented infection with smallpox virus. Jenner’s contributions spearheaded the eventual global eradication of smallpox Q: What is the epidemiological triad? Answer Human disease is classified in terms of: interactions among the human host, a vector, infectious agent, environmental factors. Q: What are host susceptibility factors? Answer Age Gender Ethnicity occupation prior exposure genetics health status Q: What are the 3 categories of "agents" Answer Biological Chemical Physical Q: What are the categories of environmental factors? Answer Temperature water air quality humidity housing food radiation Q: What is direct transmission? Answer Direct transmission of an infectious agent involves human-to-human contact. Direct transmission can occur through several possible routes: respiratory, fecal-to-oral, sexual, or blood Q: What is indirect transmission? Answer Indirect transmission may involve a common vehicle. Vehicles are objects that are contaminated with an infectious agent. Air, water, soil, and inanimate objects can be vehicles. For example, the influenza virus can remain on objects such as doorknobs and cell phones for 24-48 hours Q: What is a vector and give an example Answer an organism that carries a disease such as a mosquito carrying malaria Q: What is an agent? Answer An agent is anything that causes illness or injury in a human host. Agents can be living, biological microbes such as bacteria or parasites Q: What are environmental factors? Answer Environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, physical crowding, air pollution, access to nutritional foods and clean water, and living conditions (neighborhood and housing) also can contribute to human disease. Q: What is surveillance? Answer Surveillance is used as a tool for monitoring disease frequency or changes in risk factors for disease. Q: What is passive reporting? Answer Passive surveillance (also called passive reporting) denotes techniques in which data reporting is mandated or requested. Q: What is the goal of passive reporting? Answer The goal of passive reporting is to intervene and limit exposure to other people Who When Where Q: What is active surveillance? Answer Active surveillance requires in-depth investigations, such as interviewing patients or providers, reviewing medical records, and canvassing local areas to uncover new cases after an index case is reported Q: example of passive surveillance health program: Answer The National Health Interview Survey ( NHIS) is a passive surveillance tool that has been in use since 1957 and continues to be used on an annual basis. The study is cross-sectional (to be discussed) and seeks to obtain samples that are representative of the population. Q: What are the 5 parts of the SDOH? Social determinate of health: Answer economic stability; education; social and community context; health and healthcare; and neighborhood and physical environment. Q: Whats the difference between rates and proportions? Answer Rates allude to how quickly a disease is occurring within a population, while proportions provide a metric that describes the fraction of a population that is inflicted with a disease Q: What is incidence? Answer Incidence is the number of new cases that occur in a specified time period among a population that is at risk for developing the condition or illness. Q: What is the formula for incidence? Answer (Number of new cases occurring in a defined time period)/ (Number of persons who are at risk of developing the illness in a defined time period) x 1,000 Q: What are attack rates? Answer Attack rates are a unique subset of incidence rates that pertain to foodborne illness. For this type of incidence rate, the time period is not tabulated as person-years but rather in terms of a single exposure. Therefore, attack rates are not really ‘rates’ at all since time is not explicitly defined. Instead, attack rates are proportions Q: What are the critical factors when calculating incident factors? Answer Critically important, however, is that the numerator only includes new cases of the illness, so that risk can be accurately identified. Denominators are most meaningful when two conditions are met. First, any person included in the denominator must have the potential to be moved to the numerator; that is, to develop the condition. For example, it would not be accurate to include females in the denominator of a risk estimate that is capturing testicular cancer. Second, the issue of determining a time period must be the same for all persons in the equation. When all people have been observed (to be at risk) for an entire time period, this is known as the cumulative incidence. Incidence rates must always include time because mathematically a rate is defined as follows: Rate = (some kind of) change/(some unit of) time Q: What is the "risk" of a disease? Answer The risk of a disease is defined as cases of disease per number of people at risk. Q: What is the "rate" of a disease? Q: What is the "prevalence" of a disease? Answer Prevalence is defined as the number of persons, present within a defined population at a specific time, who have a particular condition. Prevalence, therefore, is a snapshot of current distributions and not a measure of change; it does not tell us when a condition developed and is not a rate but a proportion. Prevalence is calculated using the following equation Q: what is a "reference" group? Answer reference group is typically the group that is not exposed to an agent or the group that has “normal” levels of some biologic metric, such as cholesterol, blood pressure, or white blood cell count. Q: What is case fatality? Answer Case fatality describes the percentage of people who have died from a specific disease and is not a rate. Q: What are observational studies? Answer Observational studies differ from experimental studies, such as clinical trials, in that treatments are not applied by a researcher. Instead, groups of people with a defined exposure and without the exposure are monitored (a process called follow-up) to determine the incidence of a disease. Q: Observational studies are classified as descriptive or analytical, what is the difference between the two? Answer Descriptive studies determine the distribution of disease and potential determinants of disease. The objective is to analyze patterns of disease according to characteristics of the population: Who are the cases? Where are the cases occurring? Is the disease changing over time? In contrast, analytical epidemiological studies seek to determine risk factors and causes of a disease. Additionally, analytical studies evaluate interventions to determine if and how they are changing the course of a disease. Some common types of descriptive observational studies are case-series, cross-sectional, and ecological studies. Cohort studies, case-control, and specific subsets of clinical trials are often the study designs used for gleaning analytical objectives. Q: What is an ecological fallacy? Answer An ecological fallacy occurs when it is falsely interpreted that individuals have the same risk as the risk among the aggregate group. Q: What is an ecological study? Answer Ecological studies examine the rates of a disease in relation to a factor that is described at the population level. In other words, the units of measures are aggregates that summarize individuals in a population (persons 35 years), environmental measures (air pollution), or a geographic location (city or county) Q: What is attributable risk? Answer The attributable risk describes the risk of developing a disease, in the exposed group that can be attributed to the exposure. Q: True or False. Epidemiology involves investigation of distribution of a disease within a population and the factors effecting that distribution. Answer True Q: Etiology of a disease includes each of the following except: Answer Treatment Q: (short answer) What three metrics are essential for properly defining a 'population'? Answer Person Time Place Q: Burden of disease refers to each of the following except: Answer Research and development Q: The ____________ of a disease refers to the transmission, development, and outcomes. Answer Natural history Q: short answer) Explain why models of healthcare delivery must be constantly evaluated and updated Answer Because data changes over time. Programs may need changed as data accumulates. Also, access and financial burdens to the patient change over time. Q: (short answer) Describe the experiment that Edward Jenner conducted after he formed a hypothesis regarding cowpox and smallpox. Answer He took fluid from a dairymaid's lesions and introduced it to a young boy. Later, he inoculated the same boy with material from a smallpox lesion. Q: Fill in the blank. The epidemiological triad focuses on interactions/modes of transmission among a _____1_____ , _____2______ and ______3______ . Answer Host Agent Enviroment Q: For an illness to occur the host must be: Answer susceptible Q: Fill in the blank. An ___________ is anything that causes illness or injury in a human host. Answer agent Q: (short answer) Why are environmental factors important within the epidemiologic triad? Answer They can influence a person's susceptibility, OR it can permit interactions among hosts and agents. Q: Which type of surveillance considers existing data or reportable illnesses? Answer passive Q: A disadvantage of passive surveillance would be: Answer masking of local outbreaks Q: Advantages of active surveillance include (select all that apply): Answer in-depth data reporting rapid intervention/response quick identification of outbreaks Q: Economic stability, education, social and community context, health and healthcare, and neighborhood and physical environment are the: Answer Social determinants of health Q: True or False. Heath disparities often shift burden of disease, magnitude, and frequency of risk factors to the elite members of a population. Answer false True or False. Measures of association, such as rates and proportions, can be used to quantify and describe diseases within a population. Answer True The number of new cases divided by the number of susceptible persons (at risk) during a specific time period is: Answer incidence In determining incidence, it is essential that those people counted in the denominator have the potential to get the illness (move to numerator), and that: Answer time is specified figure out the formula for attack rate using the 2x2 square Answer Attack rate (AR) = a/a+b AR= 46/(46+6) AR= 0.88 (x100) = 88% What is the formula for prevalence? Answer Prevalence = 250 total cases as of June 30, 2012/ 185,000 x 100,000 = 135 cases per 100,000 persons What is the relative risk formula? Answer Relative Risk (RR) = Risk in the exposed (a/a+b)/ Risk in the non-exposed (c/c+d) mortality rate formula? Answer Annual mortality (all causes) per 1,000 persons = Total number of deaths from all causes/Number of persons in the population at midyear x 1,000 case fatality formula? Answer Case fatality (percent) = Number of persons dying in a specified time period after disease onset or diagnosis/Number of individuals with the specified disease x 100 1,001 cases of COVID-19 infections in a city of 10,000 people on March 1 describes: Answer prevalence Relative risk is defined by which equation? Answer risk in the exposed/risk in the non-exposed Damage from the sun is associated with melanoma. For people who reported using Sunblock A there was a melanoma incidence of 5.25 (per 1,000 persons). Those who reporting using no sunblock had a melanoma incidence of 20.14 (per 1,000 persons). What is the relative risk for the exposure group (used sunscreen)? Answer RR= 0.26 True or False. Mortality is an important metric in public health because it describes how likely someone is to catch a deadly disease. Answer False Case fatality is a: Answer Percent Observational studies investigate each of the following except: Answer outcomes of experimental and control groups Fill in the blank. ______________studies determine distribution of a disease, while ______________ studies determine risk factors and causes of a disease. Answer Descriptive analytical Fill in the blank. Cross sectional studies seek to capture a snapshot of both _______1________and exposure ________2________. Answer 1. disease 2. prevalence A key characteristic of ecological studies is that: the population is the unit of analysis True or False. Case control studies allow researchers to investigate several types of diseases. False (short answer) Why is a relative risk assessment not the best measure of association for a case-control study? Because RR is used to describe the risk of developing a disease. We worked backward and started with people who already had the disease (cases). (short answer) People were divided into two groups: those who drank 2 cups of coffee per day, and those who did not drink coffee at all. They were followed for 10 years to see if pancreatic cancer developed. In this cohort study, what is the exposure under study and what is the outcome of interest? Drinking coffee is exposure The outcome is pancreatic cancer Cohort studies primarily use attributable risk and ____________ to communicate risks associated with an exposure. relative risk