Summary final exam Sociolinguistics
Week 1: Introduction............................................................................................................... 4
1.1 Key terminology.................................................................................................................. 4
1.2 Sociolinguistics.................................................................................................................... 5
1.3 Variables and variants......................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Free variation?.................................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Regional and social dialectology......................................................................................... 6
1.6 Variation and change...........................................................................................................6
1.7 Martha’s Vineyard: a study of social dialects...................................................................... 6
1.8 Stereotypes, markers and indicators...................................................................................7
1.9 Factors motivating variation................................................................................................8
Week 2: Language variation and style...................................................................................... 9
2.1 Key terminology.................................................................................................................. 9
2.2 Accents, dialects and varieties.......................................................................................... 10
2.3 Speech styles.....................................................................................................................11
2.4 Basic assumptions of early variationists............................................................................11
2.5 Studying variation in speakers’ style................................................................................. 11
2.5.1 Monitoring/attention to speech - Labov..................................................................12
2.5.2 Speech accommodation - Giles................................................................................13
2.5.3 Audience design - Bell..............................................................................................14
2.5.4 Speaker design - Coupland.......................................................................................14
2.5.5 Acts of identity - LePage & Tabouret........................................................................15
2.6 Prestige and norms........................................................................................................... 15
2.7 The observer’s paradox..................................................................................................... 15
2.8 Relationship between social and linguistic constraints..................................................... 16
Week 3: Language attitudes................................................................................................... 17
3.1 Key terminology................................................................................................................ 17
3.2 Language attitudes in language change............................................................................ 18
3.3 Sapir-Whorf in sociolinguistics.......................................................................................... 18
3.4 Reclaiming derogatory terms............................................................................................ 19
3.5 Investigating language attitudes....................................................................................... 19
3.6 Perceptual dialectology.....................................................................................................20
3.7 Accommodation theory.................................................................................................... 21
Week 4: Social class and networks..........................................................................................23
1
, 4.1 Key terminology................................................................................................................ 23
4.2 Social class.........................................................................................................................24
4.3 Class as a factor in linguistic variation...............................................................................25
4.4 Fine and broad stratification............................................................................................. 25
4.5 Cross-over effects, change from above/below & hypercorrections.................................. 26
4.6 The influence of class from a diachronic perspective....................................................... 27
4.7 The intersection of class and style.................................................................................... 28
4.8 Social networks................................................................................................................. 29
4.9 Connecting networks and social class............................................................................... 30
4.10 Communities of practice................................................................................................. 30
4.11 The occupation-social network interaction.....................................................................31
Week 5: Time, from variation to change................................................................................. 32
5.1 Key terminology................................................................................................................ 32
5.2 Studying change over time................................................................................................33
5.2.1 Main principles of variation and change..................................................................33
5.2.1 Real time studies......................................................................................................34
5.2.2 Apparent time studies..............................................................................................35
5.2.3 Real time tests of the apparent time construct....................................................... 36
5.3 Profiles of language change.............................................................................................. 37
5.4 Age-grading & the linguistic marketplace......................................................................... 38
5.5 Language and ageing.........................................................................................................39
Week 6: Multilingualism and language contact.......................................................................40
6.1 Key terminology................................................................................................................ 40
6.2 Distribution of languages in the world.............................................................................. 42
6.3 Language policy and language planning in multilingual societies..................................... 42
6.3.1 South Africa: language policy after colonialism....................................................... 42
6.3.2 Vanuatu: language policy after colonialism............................................................. 43
6.4 Ethnolinguistic vitality....................................................................................................... 43
6.5 Diglossia............................................................................................................................ 44
6.6 Code-switching and code-mixing...................................................................................... 45
6.6.1 Language choice in Hawaii....................................................................................... 45
6.6.2 Attitudes towards code-switching............................................................................46
6.6.3 Speech levels as different codes.............................................................................. 46
6.7 Dialect levelling................................................................................................................. 46
6.8 Globalisation of English(es)............................................................................................... 47
6.8.1 The case of be like....................................................................................................48
6.9 Contact-induced change: pidgins and creoles...................................................................48
6.9.1 Focus marking in Tok Pisin....................................................................................... 49
2
, 6.9.2 Subject agreement in Bislama..................................................................................49
6.10 Sociolinguistic constraints on contact............................................................................. 50
Week 7: Gender..................................................................................................................... 51
7.1 Key terminology................................................................................................................ 51
7.2 Sex and gender..................................................................................................................52
7.3 Indexing: exclusive and preferential gender differences...................................................53
7.4 History of gender and language variation......................................................................... 54
7.4.1 Paradigms in the explanation of linguistic differences through gender...................54
7.4.2 Labov’s principles of gender and language variation............................................... 54
7.4.3 The gender paradox................................................................................................. 55
7.5 Gender performances....................................................................................................... 56
7.6 Gender and sexuality.........................................................................................................56
3
, Week 1: Introduction
📖 Meyerhoff Ch.1 & Ch.2
1.1 Key terminology
1. Variable: Principally an abstract representation of the source of variation. Realised by two or
more variants.
2. Variants: The actual realisation of a variable. Analogous to the phonetics realisations
(phones) of a phoneme.
3. Constrain/constraints: If the distribution of variants is neither random nor free, and instead
shows systematic correlations with independent factors, those factors can be said to
constrain the variation, or to be the constraints on the variable.
4. Free variation: The idea that some variants alternate with each other without any reliable
constraints on their occurrence in a particular context or by particular speakers.
5. Determinism: The idea that there is a strong causal relationship between two factors (i.e.,
one determines how the other will be). The idea that if you know the value for one factor,
you can automatically and reliably predict the value for another.
6. Regional dialectology: The identification and mapping of boundaries between different
varieties on the basis of clusters of similar and different features in particular regions, towns
or villages.
7. Reallocation: Reassignment or reanalysis of forms in contact in a systematic way, e.g., as
allophonically distributed variants of a phoneme.
8. Intermediate forms: Forms emerging following contact between closely related varieties
that fall in between the various input forms.
9. Social dialectology: The study of linguistic variation in relation to speakers’ participation or
membership in social groups, or in relation to other non-linguistic factors.
10.Interspeaker variation: Differences and variation that is measured between different
speakers (individuals or social groups).
11.Intraspeaker variation: Differences in the way a single person speaks at different times, or
with different interlocutors, or even within a sentence. Intraspeaker variation is a necessary
corollary of inherent variability in grammars.
12.Envelope of variation: All, and only, the contexts in which a variable occurs
13.Synchronic variation: variation occurring now.
14.Diachronic change: change realised over chronological time.
15.Stereotypes: A linguistic feature that is widely recognised and is very often the subject of
(not always strictly accurate!) dialect performances and impersonations.
16.Marker: A variable that speakers are less aware of than a stereotype, but which shows
consistent style effects.
4
Week 1: Introduction............................................................................................................... 4
1.1 Key terminology.................................................................................................................. 4
1.2 Sociolinguistics.................................................................................................................... 5
1.3 Variables and variants......................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Free variation?.................................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Regional and social dialectology......................................................................................... 6
1.6 Variation and change...........................................................................................................6
1.7 Martha’s Vineyard: a study of social dialects...................................................................... 6
1.8 Stereotypes, markers and indicators...................................................................................7
1.9 Factors motivating variation................................................................................................8
Week 2: Language variation and style...................................................................................... 9
2.1 Key terminology.................................................................................................................. 9
2.2 Accents, dialects and varieties.......................................................................................... 10
2.3 Speech styles.....................................................................................................................11
2.4 Basic assumptions of early variationists............................................................................11
2.5 Studying variation in speakers’ style................................................................................. 11
2.5.1 Monitoring/attention to speech - Labov..................................................................12
2.5.2 Speech accommodation - Giles................................................................................13
2.5.3 Audience design - Bell..............................................................................................14
2.5.4 Speaker design - Coupland.......................................................................................14
2.5.5 Acts of identity - LePage & Tabouret........................................................................15
2.6 Prestige and norms........................................................................................................... 15
2.7 The observer’s paradox..................................................................................................... 15
2.8 Relationship between social and linguistic constraints..................................................... 16
Week 3: Language attitudes................................................................................................... 17
3.1 Key terminology................................................................................................................ 17
3.2 Language attitudes in language change............................................................................ 18
3.3 Sapir-Whorf in sociolinguistics.......................................................................................... 18
3.4 Reclaiming derogatory terms............................................................................................ 19
3.5 Investigating language attitudes....................................................................................... 19
3.6 Perceptual dialectology.....................................................................................................20
3.7 Accommodation theory.................................................................................................... 21
Week 4: Social class and networks..........................................................................................23
1
, 4.1 Key terminology................................................................................................................ 23
4.2 Social class.........................................................................................................................24
4.3 Class as a factor in linguistic variation...............................................................................25
4.4 Fine and broad stratification............................................................................................. 25
4.5 Cross-over effects, change from above/below & hypercorrections.................................. 26
4.6 The influence of class from a diachronic perspective....................................................... 27
4.7 The intersection of class and style.................................................................................... 28
4.8 Social networks................................................................................................................. 29
4.9 Connecting networks and social class............................................................................... 30
4.10 Communities of practice................................................................................................. 30
4.11 The occupation-social network interaction.....................................................................31
Week 5: Time, from variation to change................................................................................. 32
5.1 Key terminology................................................................................................................ 32
5.2 Studying change over time................................................................................................33
5.2.1 Main principles of variation and change..................................................................33
5.2.1 Real time studies......................................................................................................34
5.2.2 Apparent time studies..............................................................................................35
5.2.3 Real time tests of the apparent time construct....................................................... 36
5.3 Profiles of language change.............................................................................................. 37
5.4 Age-grading & the linguistic marketplace......................................................................... 38
5.5 Language and ageing.........................................................................................................39
Week 6: Multilingualism and language contact.......................................................................40
6.1 Key terminology................................................................................................................ 40
6.2 Distribution of languages in the world.............................................................................. 42
6.3 Language policy and language planning in multilingual societies..................................... 42
6.3.1 South Africa: language policy after colonialism....................................................... 42
6.3.2 Vanuatu: language policy after colonialism............................................................. 43
6.4 Ethnolinguistic vitality....................................................................................................... 43
6.5 Diglossia............................................................................................................................ 44
6.6 Code-switching and code-mixing...................................................................................... 45
6.6.1 Language choice in Hawaii....................................................................................... 45
6.6.2 Attitudes towards code-switching............................................................................46
6.6.3 Speech levels as different codes.............................................................................. 46
6.7 Dialect levelling................................................................................................................. 46
6.8 Globalisation of English(es)............................................................................................... 47
6.8.1 The case of be like....................................................................................................48
6.9 Contact-induced change: pidgins and creoles...................................................................48
6.9.1 Focus marking in Tok Pisin....................................................................................... 49
2
, 6.9.2 Subject agreement in Bislama..................................................................................49
6.10 Sociolinguistic constraints on contact............................................................................. 50
Week 7: Gender..................................................................................................................... 51
7.1 Key terminology................................................................................................................ 51
7.2 Sex and gender..................................................................................................................52
7.3 Indexing: exclusive and preferential gender differences...................................................53
7.4 History of gender and language variation......................................................................... 54
7.4.1 Paradigms in the explanation of linguistic differences through gender...................54
7.4.2 Labov’s principles of gender and language variation............................................... 54
7.4.3 The gender paradox................................................................................................. 55
7.5 Gender performances....................................................................................................... 56
7.6 Gender and sexuality.........................................................................................................56
3
, Week 1: Introduction
📖 Meyerhoff Ch.1 & Ch.2
1.1 Key terminology
1. Variable: Principally an abstract representation of the source of variation. Realised by two or
more variants.
2. Variants: The actual realisation of a variable. Analogous to the phonetics realisations
(phones) of a phoneme.
3. Constrain/constraints: If the distribution of variants is neither random nor free, and instead
shows systematic correlations with independent factors, those factors can be said to
constrain the variation, or to be the constraints on the variable.
4. Free variation: The idea that some variants alternate with each other without any reliable
constraints on their occurrence in a particular context or by particular speakers.
5. Determinism: The idea that there is a strong causal relationship between two factors (i.e.,
one determines how the other will be). The idea that if you know the value for one factor,
you can automatically and reliably predict the value for another.
6. Regional dialectology: The identification and mapping of boundaries between different
varieties on the basis of clusters of similar and different features in particular regions, towns
or villages.
7. Reallocation: Reassignment or reanalysis of forms in contact in a systematic way, e.g., as
allophonically distributed variants of a phoneme.
8. Intermediate forms: Forms emerging following contact between closely related varieties
that fall in between the various input forms.
9. Social dialectology: The study of linguistic variation in relation to speakers’ participation or
membership in social groups, or in relation to other non-linguistic factors.
10.Interspeaker variation: Differences and variation that is measured between different
speakers (individuals or social groups).
11.Intraspeaker variation: Differences in the way a single person speaks at different times, or
with different interlocutors, or even within a sentence. Intraspeaker variation is a necessary
corollary of inherent variability in grammars.
12.Envelope of variation: All, and only, the contexts in which a variable occurs
13.Synchronic variation: variation occurring now.
14.Diachronic change: change realised over chronological time.
15.Stereotypes: A linguistic feature that is widely recognised and is very often the subject of
(not always strictly accurate!) dialect performances and impersonations.
16.Marker: A variable that speakers are less aware of than a stereotype, but which shows
consistent style effects.
4
