Nurs 611 Advanced Pathophysiology Study Guide Exam 1
|2026 Latest Update with Complete Solution
Key Points Exam 1:
Know Cell components and what they do:
· Nucleus- Located in the center of the cell and contains the nucleolus which is
composed of DNA, RNA, histones, and chromosomes. Primary functions are cell
division, replication and repair of DNA, and transcription of RNA.
· Ribosomes- Protein making factory (nucleoproteins). Goes into the nucleus, gets the
“recipe”, transcribes the DNA, brings it out of the nucleus and releases the protein into
the cytoplasm.
· Lysosome- “garbage disposal”. filled with enzymes that digest organic molecules
within the cell. They use hydrolase to break down the molecules.
· Peroxisome- “garbage disposal”. Contain oxidative enzymes catalase and urate
oxidase. Larger than lysosomes. Detoxifies compounds and fatty acids that contain
hydrogen.
What are Free Radicals or Reactive Oxygen Species? How do they cause damage? Free
radicals are unstable electrically uncharged molecular species that roam free and will
steal electrons from other cell membranes thus destroying that cell.
Cell membrane
· What is the Plasma Membrane made up of? The membrane is made up of lipids and
proteins (lipid bilayer)
· Why do we need a Cell membrane? The cell membrane acts as a “filter”. They
provide protection, transport material, allow cell to cell interaction.
· How is Osmolality different between ICF and ECF? Body osmolality is 280-294
and ICF and ECF are equal.
· What do proteins do for the cell? How much of the Cell membrane is made up of
protein? Proteins perform most of the membrane's tasks. They are the cell's workhorses.
They transport things across the cell membrane and act as receptors, enzymes, or
transporters.
· What is a protein? Made from a chain of amino acids called polypeptides. There are
20 types.
3 types of Cell junctions:
· Describe what Tight junctions are and why we need them? Barriers to diffusion.
Prevent movement of substances. Prevent leakage.
· Describe what Gap junctions are and why we need them? Clusters of
communicating tunnels. They allow small ions and molecules to pass from inside one
cell into the inside of another cell.
, · Describe what Desmosomes are and why we need them? They unite cells. They
unite cells by forming continuous bands of epithelial sheets or by developing button-like
points of contact.
Energy
· What is Oxidative phosphorylation? Occurs in the mitochondria. Mechanism in
which energy produced from carbs, fats, and proteins is transferred to ATP.
· What is the Inside of cell main Cation? Potassium
· What is the outside of cell main Cation? Sodium
· Is the inside of the cell positively or negatively charged? Negative. The Resting
membrane potential= -70 to -85 millivolts
· Is the outside of the cell positively or negatively charged? Postive
Transport:
· Describe what diffusion is? Is it active or passive? Give an example? Movement of
solutes from an area of greater concentration to lower concentration (move with the
concentration gradient). This is a passive process. Example: putting blue dye in a cup of
water. The dye will spread out until evenly distributed.
· Describe what Facilitated diffusion is? Is it active or passive? Give an example of
facilitated diffusion? The process of passive transport (move with the concentration
gradient) of molecules or ions across a membrane via specific transport proteins. Ex:
glucose needs a transport protein because it is too big to pass through the lipid bilayer on its
own.
· Describe Active Transport? Is it active or passive? Give an example? Requires
energy to move molecules against a concentration gradient through transport pumps. Ex.
sodium/potassium dependent adenosine triphosphate pump. This is an active process.
Tonicity
· What does the cell do in a Hypotonic solution? Swells
· What does the cell do in a Isotonic solution? Stay the same
· What does the cell do in a Hypertonic solution? Shrinks
Give an example of a hypotonic solution? Water
Give an example of an isotonic solution? 0.9 %Normal saline and 5% dextrose
Give an example of a hypertonic solution? 3% saline solution
, What are Oncotic pressure verses Hydrostatic pressure? Oncotic pressure= overall osmotic
effect of colloids; Hydrostatic pressure= the mechanical force of water pushing against cellular
membranes.
What part does albumin do with keeping fluid in blood vessels? maintains intravascular
colloid osmotic pressure
What is happening in edema or third spacing if albumin is low? The fluid is leaking outside of
the vascular system into the interstitial spaces.
What happens to calcium if albumin is low? Calcium decreases
Electrical Impulses and Membrane potential
Define:
Resting Membrane Potential? This is the difference in electrical charge between the outside of
the cell and the inside of the cell. This is approx. -70 to -85 millivolts.
Action Potential? When the nerve/muscle cells receives a stimulus that exceeds the membrane
threshold value causing a rapid change in the resting membrane potential
Depolarization? Movement of sodium into the cell which causes the membrane potential to move
from a negative value to 0. Polarity is neutralized.
Repolarization? The negative polarity of the resting membrane potential is reestablished.
What is the difference between the relative refractory and Absolute refractory period?
Relative refractory= when permeability to K+ increases, a stronger than normal stimulus can
occur and evoke an action potential
Absolute refractory period= the time in which the plasma membrane cannot respond to
additional stimulus.
Key Points WEEK 2: Altered Cell metabolism and Genetics
Altered Tissue
Define and give examples of each
Condition Define Example
Atrophy Decrease or shrinkage in When the muscles shrink
cellular size due to inactivity
|2026 Latest Update with Complete Solution
Key Points Exam 1:
Know Cell components and what they do:
· Nucleus- Located in the center of the cell and contains the nucleolus which is
composed of DNA, RNA, histones, and chromosomes. Primary functions are cell
division, replication and repair of DNA, and transcription of RNA.
· Ribosomes- Protein making factory (nucleoproteins). Goes into the nucleus, gets the
“recipe”, transcribes the DNA, brings it out of the nucleus and releases the protein into
the cytoplasm.
· Lysosome- “garbage disposal”. filled with enzymes that digest organic molecules
within the cell. They use hydrolase to break down the molecules.
· Peroxisome- “garbage disposal”. Contain oxidative enzymes catalase and urate
oxidase. Larger than lysosomes. Detoxifies compounds and fatty acids that contain
hydrogen.
What are Free Radicals or Reactive Oxygen Species? How do they cause damage? Free
radicals are unstable electrically uncharged molecular species that roam free and will
steal electrons from other cell membranes thus destroying that cell.
Cell membrane
· What is the Plasma Membrane made up of? The membrane is made up of lipids and
proteins (lipid bilayer)
· Why do we need a Cell membrane? The cell membrane acts as a “filter”. They
provide protection, transport material, allow cell to cell interaction.
· How is Osmolality different between ICF and ECF? Body osmolality is 280-294
and ICF and ECF are equal.
· What do proteins do for the cell? How much of the Cell membrane is made up of
protein? Proteins perform most of the membrane's tasks. They are the cell's workhorses.
They transport things across the cell membrane and act as receptors, enzymes, or
transporters.
· What is a protein? Made from a chain of amino acids called polypeptides. There are
20 types.
3 types of Cell junctions:
· Describe what Tight junctions are and why we need them? Barriers to diffusion.
Prevent movement of substances. Prevent leakage.
· Describe what Gap junctions are and why we need them? Clusters of
communicating tunnels. They allow small ions and molecules to pass from inside one
cell into the inside of another cell.
, · Describe what Desmosomes are and why we need them? They unite cells. They
unite cells by forming continuous bands of epithelial sheets or by developing button-like
points of contact.
Energy
· What is Oxidative phosphorylation? Occurs in the mitochondria. Mechanism in
which energy produced from carbs, fats, and proteins is transferred to ATP.
· What is the Inside of cell main Cation? Potassium
· What is the outside of cell main Cation? Sodium
· Is the inside of the cell positively or negatively charged? Negative. The Resting
membrane potential= -70 to -85 millivolts
· Is the outside of the cell positively or negatively charged? Postive
Transport:
· Describe what diffusion is? Is it active or passive? Give an example? Movement of
solutes from an area of greater concentration to lower concentration (move with the
concentration gradient). This is a passive process. Example: putting blue dye in a cup of
water. The dye will spread out until evenly distributed.
· Describe what Facilitated diffusion is? Is it active or passive? Give an example of
facilitated diffusion? The process of passive transport (move with the concentration
gradient) of molecules or ions across a membrane via specific transport proteins. Ex:
glucose needs a transport protein because it is too big to pass through the lipid bilayer on its
own.
· Describe Active Transport? Is it active or passive? Give an example? Requires
energy to move molecules against a concentration gradient through transport pumps. Ex.
sodium/potassium dependent adenosine triphosphate pump. This is an active process.
Tonicity
· What does the cell do in a Hypotonic solution? Swells
· What does the cell do in a Isotonic solution? Stay the same
· What does the cell do in a Hypertonic solution? Shrinks
Give an example of a hypotonic solution? Water
Give an example of an isotonic solution? 0.9 %Normal saline and 5% dextrose
Give an example of a hypertonic solution? 3% saline solution
, What are Oncotic pressure verses Hydrostatic pressure? Oncotic pressure= overall osmotic
effect of colloids; Hydrostatic pressure= the mechanical force of water pushing against cellular
membranes.
What part does albumin do with keeping fluid in blood vessels? maintains intravascular
colloid osmotic pressure
What is happening in edema or third spacing if albumin is low? The fluid is leaking outside of
the vascular system into the interstitial spaces.
What happens to calcium if albumin is low? Calcium decreases
Electrical Impulses and Membrane potential
Define:
Resting Membrane Potential? This is the difference in electrical charge between the outside of
the cell and the inside of the cell. This is approx. -70 to -85 millivolts.
Action Potential? When the nerve/muscle cells receives a stimulus that exceeds the membrane
threshold value causing a rapid change in the resting membrane potential
Depolarization? Movement of sodium into the cell which causes the membrane potential to move
from a negative value to 0. Polarity is neutralized.
Repolarization? The negative polarity of the resting membrane potential is reestablished.
What is the difference between the relative refractory and Absolute refractory period?
Relative refractory= when permeability to K+ increases, a stronger than normal stimulus can
occur and evoke an action potential
Absolute refractory period= the time in which the plasma membrane cannot respond to
additional stimulus.
Key Points WEEK 2: Altered Cell metabolism and Genetics
Altered Tissue
Define and give examples of each
Condition Define Example
Atrophy Decrease or shrinkage in When the muscles shrink
cellular size due to inactivity
