PSYC 2440 - Final Exam Questions (Chapters 1 -
10) With Complete Answers
Identify the three basic stages in any shaping procedure as presented at the
beginning of this chapter. Describe them with an example - ANSWER (1). Specify
the final target behavior. Frank's goal was to jog a quarter of a mile each day.
(2). Identify a response that could be used as a starting point in working toward
the final target behavior. Frank decided that he would put on his sneakers and
walk around the outside of the house once.
(3). Reinforce the starting behavior; then reinforce closer and closer
approximations until eventually the final target behavior occurs. Frank decided
to use the opportunity to drink a beer as a reinforcer. He explained his program
to his wife and asked her to remind him that he had to complete his exercise
before he could have a beer.
Define and give an example of intermittent reinforcement. - ANSWER
intermittent reinforcement is an arrangement in which a behavior is positively
reinforced intermittently rather than every time it occurs.
Define and give an example of response rate. - ANSWER Response rate refers to
the number of instances of a behavior that occur in a given period of time.
Define shaping. - ANSWER Shaping can be defined as the development of a new
operant behavior by the reinforcement of successive approximations of that
behavior and the extinction of earlier approximations of that behavior until the
new behavior occurs.
Define and give an example of schedule of reinforcement. - ANSWER A schedule
of reinforcement is a rule specifying which occurrences of a given behavior, if
any, will be reinforced.
What is another name for shaping? - ANSWER method of successive
approximations
Describe four advantages of intermittent reinforcement over CRF for
maintaining behavior. - ANSWER (a) The reinforcer remains effective longer
because satiation takes place more slowly; (b) behavior that has been
reinforced intermittently tends to take longer to extinguish; (c) individuals work
more consistently on certain intermittent schedules; and (d) behavior that has
been reinforced intermittently is more likely to persist after being transferred to
reinforcers in the natural environment.
,What is meant by the term final target behavior in a shaping program? Give an
example. - ANSWER A behavior that does not currently occur but is targeted or
desired to do so at the end of the shaping program. The final target behavior
should be stated in such a way that all the relevant characteristics of the
behavior—its topography, duration, frequency, latency, and intensity—are
identified. In addition, the conditions under which the behavior is or is not to
occur should be stated, and any other guidelines that appear to be necessary
for consistency should be provided. In Frank's case, the final target behavior
was jogging a quarter of a mile each day.
What is a free-operant procedure? Give an example. - ANSWER A free-operant
procedure is one in which the individual is "free" to respond at various rates in
the sense that there are no constraints on successive responses. For example, if
Jan had been given a worksheet containing 12 math problems to solve, she
could have worked at a rate of one problem per minute, or a rate of three per
minute, or at some other rate.
What is meant by the term starting behavior in a shaping program? Give an
example. - ANSWER A behavior that reliably occurs, is an approximation of the
final desired behavior in a shaping program, and is used to begin the process of
developing the final target behavior. For example, Frank's behavior of walking
around the house once is something that he did periodically. This was the
closest approximation that he regularly made with respect to the goal of jogging
a quarter of a mile.
Give an example of the unaware-misapplication pitfall in which shaping might be
accidentally applied to develop an undesirable behavior. Describe some of the
shaping steps in your example. - ANSWER Suppose a small child receives very
little social attention from family members when he performs appropriate
behavior. Perhaps one day the child accidentally falls and strikes his head lightly
against a hard floor. Even if the child is not injured seriously, a parent may come
running quickly and make a big fuss over the incident. Because of this
reinforcement and because anything else the child does that is appropriate
seldom evokes attention, he is likely to repeat the response of striking his head
lightly against the floor. The first few times this occurs, the parent may continue
to reinforce the response. Eventually, however, seeing that the child is not really
hurting himself, the parent may stop reinforcing it. Because the behavior has
now been placed on operant extinction, the intensity of the behavior may
increase (see Chapter 8). That is, the child may begin to hit his head more
forcefully, and the slightly louder thud will cause the parent to come running
again.
What is a discrete-trials procedure? Give an example. - ANSWER In a discrete-
trials procedure, the individual is "not free" to respond at whatever rate he or
she chooses because the environment places limits on the availability of
response opportunities. For example, if a parent told a teenage son, "You can
, use the family car after you have helped do the dishes following three evening
meals," then that would be a discrete-trials procedure.
What are three characteristic effects of an FR schedule? - ANSWER When
introduced gradually, FR schedules produce a high steady rate until
reinforcement occurs, followed by a postreinforcement pause. The length of the
postreinforcement pause depends on the value of the FR—the higher the value,
the longer the pause. FR schedules also produce high resistance to extinction.
Explain what a VR schedule is. Describe the details of two examples of VR
schedules in everyday life. Do your examples involve a free-operant procedure
or a discrete-trials procedure? - ANSWER 11. With a variable-ratio (VR)
schedule, a reinforcer occurs after a certain number of a particular response,
and the number of responses required for each reinforcer changes
unpredictably from one reinforcer to the next.
Describe two examples of how FR or VR might be applied in training programs.
Do your examples involve a freeoperant or a discrete-trials procedure? -
ANSWER For example, FR schedule such as a coach tells his team that they can
have a fun scrimmage after they practice for 1 hour, this is an example involves
free operant procedure. VR schedule such as that over a period of several
months, a door-to-door salesperson averages one sale for every 10 houses
called on. This does not mean that the salesperson makes a sale at exactly every
10th house. Sometimes a sale might have been made after calling on a total of
five houses. Sometimes sales might occur at two houses in a row. And
sometimes the salesperson might call on a large number of houses before
making a sale. Over several months, however, a mean of 10 house calls is
required to produce reinforcement.
Suppose that a professor gives an exam every Friday. The students' studying
behavior would likely resemble the characteristic pattern of an FI schedule in
that studying would gradually increase as Friday approaches, and the students
would show a break in studying after each exam. But this is not an example of an
FI schedule for studying. Explain why. - ANSWER However, consider the
preceding two questions. Can the students wait until just before a week has
passed, make one study response, and receive a good grade? No, a good grade
is contingent on studying during the one-week interval. Does responding before
the interval ends
affect anything? Yes, it contributes to a good grade. Therefore, this is not an
example of FI, although it may resemble it in some ways.
Explain what an FI/LH schedule is. Describe the details of an example that is not
in this chapter. - ANSWER Most FI schedules that you encounter in everyday life
have a limited hold attached to them. In the natural environment, a good
approximation of an FI/LH schedule is waiting for a bus. Buses usually run on a
regular schedule. An individual may arrive at the bus stop early, just before the
10) With Complete Answers
Identify the three basic stages in any shaping procedure as presented at the
beginning of this chapter. Describe them with an example - ANSWER (1). Specify
the final target behavior. Frank's goal was to jog a quarter of a mile each day.
(2). Identify a response that could be used as a starting point in working toward
the final target behavior. Frank decided that he would put on his sneakers and
walk around the outside of the house once.
(3). Reinforce the starting behavior; then reinforce closer and closer
approximations until eventually the final target behavior occurs. Frank decided
to use the opportunity to drink a beer as a reinforcer. He explained his program
to his wife and asked her to remind him that he had to complete his exercise
before he could have a beer.
Define and give an example of intermittent reinforcement. - ANSWER
intermittent reinforcement is an arrangement in which a behavior is positively
reinforced intermittently rather than every time it occurs.
Define and give an example of response rate. - ANSWER Response rate refers to
the number of instances of a behavior that occur in a given period of time.
Define shaping. - ANSWER Shaping can be defined as the development of a new
operant behavior by the reinforcement of successive approximations of that
behavior and the extinction of earlier approximations of that behavior until the
new behavior occurs.
Define and give an example of schedule of reinforcement. - ANSWER A schedule
of reinforcement is a rule specifying which occurrences of a given behavior, if
any, will be reinforced.
What is another name for shaping? - ANSWER method of successive
approximations
Describe four advantages of intermittent reinforcement over CRF for
maintaining behavior. - ANSWER (a) The reinforcer remains effective longer
because satiation takes place more slowly; (b) behavior that has been
reinforced intermittently tends to take longer to extinguish; (c) individuals work
more consistently on certain intermittent schedules; and (d) behavior that has
been reinforced intermittently is more likely to persist after being transferred to
reinforcers in the natural environment.
,What is meant by the term final target behavior in a shaping program? Give an
example. - ANSWER A behavior that does not currently occur but is targeted or
desired to do so at the end of the shaping program. The final target behavior
should be stated in such a way that all the relevant characteristics of the
behavior—its topography, duration, frequency, latency, and intensity—are
identified. In addition, the conditions under which the behavior is or is not to
occur should be stated, and any other guidelines that appear to be necessary
for consistency should be provided. In Frank's case, the final target behavior
was jogging a quarter of a mile each day.
What is a free-operant procedure? Give an example. - ANSWER A free-operant
procedure is one in which the individual is "free" to respond at various rates in
the sense that there are no constraints on successive responses. For example, if
Jan had been given a worksheet containing 12 math problems to solve, she
could have worked at a rate of one problem per minute, or a rate of three per
minute, or at some other rate.
What is meant by the term starting behavior in a shaping program? Give an
example. - ANSWER A behavior that reliably occurs, is an approximation of the
final desired behavior in a shaping program, and is used to begin the process of
developing the final target behavior. For example, Frank's behavior of walking
around the house once is something that he did periodically. This was the
closest approximation that he regularly made with respect to the goal of jogging
a quarter of a mile.
Give an example of the unaware-misapplication pitfall in which shaping might be
accidentally applied to develop an undesirable behavior. Describe some of the
shaping steps in your example. - ANSWER Suppose a small child receives very
little social attention from family members when he performs appropriate
behavior. Perhaps one day the child accidentally falls and strikes his head lightly
against a hard floor. Even if the child is not injured seriously, a parent may come
running quickly and make a big fuss over the incident. Because of this
reinforcement and because anything else the child does that is appropriate
seldom evokes attention, he is likely to repeat the response of striking his head
lightly against the floor. The first few times this occurs, the parent may continue
to reinforce the response. Eventually, however, seeing that the child is not really
hurting himself, the parent may stop reinforcing it. Because the behavior has
now been placed on operant extinction, the intensity of the behavior may
increase (see Chapter 8). That is, the child may begin to hit his head more
forcefully, and the slightly louder thud will cause the parent to come running
again.
What is a discrete-trials procedure? Give an example. - ANSWER In a discrete-
trials procedure, the individual is "not free" to respond at whatever rate he or
she chooses because the environment places limits on the availability of
response opportunities. For example, if a parent told a teenage son, "You can
, use the family car after you have helped do the dishes following three evening
meals," then that would be a discrete-trials procedure.
What are three characteristic effects of an FR schedule? - ANSWER When
introduced gradually, FR schedules produce a high steady rate until
reinforcement occurs, followed by a postreinforcement pause. The length of the
postreinforcement pause depends on the value of the FR—the higher the value,
the longer the pause. FR schedules also produce high resistance to extinction.
Explain what a VR schedule is. Describe the details of two examples of VR
schedules in everyday life. Do your examples involve a free-operant procedure
or a discrete-trials procedure? - ANSWER 11. With a variable-ratio (VR)
schedule, a reinforcer occurs after a certain number of a particular response,
and the number of responses required for each reinforcer changes
unpredictably from one reinforcer to the next.
Describe two examples of how FR or VR might be applied in training programs.
Do your examples involve a freeoperant or a discrete-trials procedure? -
ANSWER For example, FR schedule such as a coach tells his team that they can
have a fun scrimmage after they practice for 1 hour, this is an example involves
free operant procedure. VR schedule such as that over a period of several
months, a door-to-door salesperson averages one sale for every 10 houses
called on. This does not mean that the salesperson makes a sale at exactly every
10th house. Sometimes a sale might have been made after calling on a total of
five houses. Sometimes sales might occur at two houses in a row. And
sometimes the salesperson might call on a large number of houses before
making a sale. Over several months, however, a mean of 10 house calls is
required to produce reinforcement.
Suppose that a professor gives an exam every Friday. The students' studying
behavior would likely resemble the characteristic pattern of an FI schedule in
that studying would gradually increase as Friday approaches, and the students
would show a break in studying after each exam. But this is not an example of an
FI schedule for studying. Explain why. - ANSWER However, consider the
preceding two questions. Can the students wait until just before a week has
passed, make one study response, and receive a good grade? No, a good grade
is contingent on studying during the one-week interval. Does responding before
the interval ends
affect anything? Yes, it contributes to a good grade. Therefore, this is not an
example of FI, although it may resemble it in some ways.
Explain what an FI/LH schedule is. Describe the details of an example that is not
in this chapter. - ANSWER Most FI schedules that you encounter in everyday life
have a limited hold attached to them. In the natural environment, a good
approximation of an FI/LH schedule is waiting for a bus. Buses usually run on a
regular schedule. An individual may arrive at the bus stop early, just before the
