Development of Pro- and Antisocial Behaviour
Theme 1 – Theories of prosocial behaviour – Part I
Why examine prosocial behaviour?
Important theme in religion, philosophy, folktales, etc.
- Universal
- Adaptive function (evolutionary psychology).
1900: scientists (Mc Dougall) show interest in prosocial behaviour, but
interest readily declines.
- Turning point in 60’s.
- Kitty Genovese (1964) was murdered, people saw but no one called
the police. Why didn’t anyone help her?
What is prosocial behaviour?
Prosocial behaviour: behaviour that is defined by society as generally
beneficial to other people and/or to the ongoing political or cultural
system.
Note: always interpersonal, context dependent.
Specific forms of prosocial behaviour
- Helping
Any action that has the consequence of providing some benefit to or
improving the well-being of another person.
4 types of helping
1. Casual helping: small favour for a known or unknown person.
2. Substantial personal helping: considerable effort.
3. Emotional helping: emotional support for a known person.
4. Emergency helping: helping with an acute problem.
3 dimensional classification system
- Altruism
Helping purely out of the desire to benefit
someone else, with no benefit (and often a cost)
to oneself.
- Cooperation
Acting together (in a coordinated way) in pursuit of shared goals, the
enjoyment of the joint activity, or simply furthering the relationship.
,Theme 1 – Theories of prosocial behaviour – Part II
When are people prosocial?
Latane and Darley Model: whether a person will act prosocially (or not) is
the result of a logical decision-making process that includes 5 steps:
1. Notice the event. The clarity and context of the event as well as the
mood of the helper determines whether someone notices something
is wrong. If no, no help is given, if yes, step 2.
2. Interpret event as emergency. Clear signs of distress increase the
chance of bystanders interpreting the situation as an emergency. If
no, no help is given, if yes, step 3.
3. Taking personal. Bystander effect: when you are the only person
witnessing an emergency, you are more likely to help them when
there are more witnesses. Inverse relationship: the greater the
number of bystanders, the less likely anyone will help. Why?
Pluralistic ignorance: looking to one another to (re)interpret
situation. Diffusion of responsibility: believing that someone else will
take responsibility. If no, no help is given, if yes, step 4.
4. Know what to do. If no, no help is given, if yes, step 5.
5. Implement decision. If no, no help is given, if yes, help is given.
Are people with first aid training better able to decide what to do? And do
they take action? They do not help more often, but they do provide better
quality of help.
People are more likely to be prosocial when:
- People notice the situation.
- They categorize the situation as an emergency.
- They feel responsible to help.
- They know what to do.
Theme 1 – Theories of prosocial behaviour – Part III
Why are people prosocial?
5 potential explanations:
We help people because…
1. The benefits outweigh the costs.
2. It is the norm.
3. We feel empathy and we want to reduce stress.
4. We learned this from others.
5. It is an inherited characteristic.
1. Cost-benefit analysis: the decision to help depends on the
consideration of costs and benefits: people want to minimalize their
costs and maximize their benefits.
- Benefits for helping: social recognition, positive self-view, positive
emotions.
- Cost for helping: time and effort, loss of goods, risk getting injured,
emotional toll.
, - Costs for not helping: social disapproval, physical/mental problems.
2. It is the norm. Social norms are rules for acceptable and non-
acceptable behaviour in certain situations.
- Reciprocity norm: we feel inclined to help others who have helped
us.
- Social responsibility norm: we feel inclined to help others who are
dependent on us.
- Personal norms: one’s individual feelings of moral obligation on how
to behave in a certain situation.
Explanations presented mostly focused on cognitions.
- Think + weight + decide = help.
Do people only help from cognition or is there more to it?
3. We feel empathy and want to reduce stress.
- Aversive arousal reduction: we want to reduce our arousal when
witnessing an event or emergency either by helping or by walking
away.
- Negative state relief model: people have an innate drive to reduce
negative moods.
1. Negative emotions evoked. If no, helping is unlikely, if yes, step 2.
2. Can we reduce them by doing something? If no, helping is
unlikely, if yes, step 3.
3. Is helping a way to reduce the negative emotions? If no, helping
is unlikely, if yes helping is likely.
Motivation stems from egocentric reasons: helping to make
yourself feel better.
- Empathy-altruism model
1. Negative emotions evoked. If yes, step 2.
2. Do we feel empathy for the person in need? If no, help is provided
out of self interest or they will not help, if yes, help is likely.
Motivation stems from altruistic reasons: helping to make the
other feel better.
People are more likely to be prosocial because
- The benefits of helping outweigh the costs.
- It is the norm.
- They want to reduce their stress and arousal.
Theme 1 – Theories of prosocial behaviour – Part I
Why examine prosocial behaviour?
Important theme in religion, philosophy, folktales, etc.
- Universal
- Adaptive function (evolutionary psychology).
1900: scientists (Mc Dougall) show interest in prosocial behaviour, but
interest readily declines.
- Turning point in 60’s.
- Kitty Genovese (1964) was murdered, people saw but no one called
the police. Why didn’t anyone help her?
What is prosocial behaviour?
Prosocial behaviour: behaviour that is defined by society as generally
beneficial to other people and/or to the ongoing political or cultural
system.
Note: always interpersonal, context dependent.
Specific forms of prosocial behaviour
- Helping
Any action that has the consequence of providing some benefit to or
improving the well-being of another person.
4 types of helping
1. Casual helping: small favour for a known or unknown person.
2. Substantial personal helping: considerable effort.
3. Emotional helping: emotional support for a known person.
4. Emergency helping: helping with an acute problem.
3 dimensional classification system
- Altruism
Helping purely out of the desire to benefit
someone else, with no benefit (and often a cost)
to oneself.
- Cooperation
Acting together (in a coordinated way) in pursuit of shared goals, the
enjoyment of the joint activity, or simply furthering the relationship.
,Theme 1 – Theories of prosocial behaviour – Part II
When are people prosocial?
Latane and Darley Model: whether a person will act prosocially (or not) is
the result of a logical decision-making process that includes 5 steps:
1. Notice the event. The clarity and context of the event as well as the
mood of the helper determines whether someone notices something
is wrong. If no, no help is given, if yes, step 2.
2. Interpret event as emergency. Clear signs of distress increase the
chance of bystanders interpreting the situation as an emergency. If
no, no help is given, if yes, step 3.
3. Taking personal. Bystander effect: when you are the only person
witnessing an emergency, you are more likely to help them when
there are more witnesses. Inverse relationship: the greater the
number of bystanders, the less likely anyone will help. Why?
Pluralistic ignorance: looking to one another to (re)interpret
situation. Diffusion of responsibility: believing that someone else will
take responsibility. If no, no help is given, if yes, step 4.
4. Know what to do. If no, no help is given, if yes, step 5.
5. Implement decision. If no, no help is given, if yes, help is given.
Are people with first aid training better able to decide what to do? And do
they take action? They do not help more often, but they do provide better
quality of help.
People are more likely to be prosocial when:
- People notice the situation.
- They categorize the situation as an emergency.
- They feel responsible to help.
- They know what to do.
Theme 1 – Theories of prosocial behaviour – Part III
Why are people prosocial?
5 potential explanations:
We help people because…
1. The benefits outweigh the costs.
2. It is the norm.
3. We feel empathy and we want to reduce stress.
4. We learned this from others.
5. It is an inherited characteristic.
1. Cost-benefit analysis: the decision to help depends on the
consideration of costs and benefits: people want to minimalize their
costs and maximize their benefits.
- Benefits for helping: social recognition, positive self-view, positive
emotions.
- Cost for helping: time and effort, loss of goods, risk getting injured,
emotional toll.
, - Costs for not helping: social disapproval, physical/mental problems.
2. It is the norm. Social norms are rules for acceptable and non-
acceptable behaviour in certain situations.
- Reciprocity norm: we feel inclined to help others who have helped
us.
- Social responsibility norm: we feel inclined to help others who are
dependent on us.
- Personal norms: one’s individual feelings of moral obligation on how
to behave in a certain situation.
Explanations presented mostly focused on cognitions.
- Think + weight + decide = help.
Do people only help from cognition or is there more to it?
3. We feel empathy and want to reduce stress.
- Aversive arousal reduction: we want to reduce our arousal when
witnessing an event or emergency either by helping or by walking
away.
- Negative state relief model: people have an innate drive to reduce
negative moods.
1. Negative emotions evoked. If no, helping is unlikely, if yes, step 2.
2. Can we reduce them by doing something? If no, helping is
unlikely, if yes, step 3.
3. Is helping a way to reduce the negative emotions? If no, helping
is unlikely, if yes helping is likely.
Motivation stems from egocentric reasons: helping to make
yourself feel better.
- Empathy-altruism model
1. Negative emotions evoked. If yes, step 2.
2. Do we feel empathy for the person in need? If no, help is provided
out of self interest or they will not help, if yes, help is likely.
Motivation stems from altruistic reasons: helping to make the
other feel better.
People are more likely to be prosocial because
- The benefits of helping outweigh the costs.
- It is the norm.
- They want to reduce their stress and arousal.
