Intelligence: Psychometric & Vygotskian Theories
A Comparative Study Guide · Based on Feldman (2018) & CBSE Psychology
1. What is Intelligence?
Intelligence is a key psychological dimension explaining individual differences in cognition and
behaviour. It encompasses the capacity to understand complex ideas, learn from experience, adapt
to environments, reason abstractly, and overcome obstacles.
The Oxford Dictionary defines intelligence as "the ability to see, learn, comprehend, and know."
Psychologists, however, distinguish between common-sense notions and formal theoretical
frameworks.
2. The Psychometric Approach
Core idea: Intelligence is a measurable, stable collection of abilities that can be represented
by a single cognitive performance indicator (IQ).
2.1 Key Theorists & Models
Alfred Binet — Uni-factor theory
The first psychologist to formalise intelligence measurement. Defined intelligence as a collection of
talents applicable to any problem. Proposed a single, unified pool of intellectual ability (the uni-
factor or one-component view). Later questioned when factor analysis was applied to test data.
Charles Spearman (1927) — Two-factor theory
Used factor analysis to identify two components:
• g-factor (general intelligence): mental operations common to all cognitive performances — the
core of intellectual ability.
• s-factors (specific abilities): specialised skills relevant to particular tasks (e.g., numerical,
verbal, spatial).
Arthur Jensen — Hierarchical model
Proposed two levels of intelligence operating in a hierarchy:
• Level I — Associative learning: output closely mirrors input (e.g., rote learning, memory tasks).
• Level II — Cognitive competence: higher-order processing that transforms information into
useful output; abstract reasoning.
Raymond Cattell — Fluid & crystallised intelligence
Expanded Spearman's g into two broad factors:
• Fluid intelligence (Gf): novel reasoning, pattern recognition, solving new problems
independent of prior knowledge.
, • Crystallised intelligence (Gc): accumulated knowledge and skills derived from experience and
education.
2.2 Howard Gardner — Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Gardner challenged the single-entity view of intelligence, proposing 8 independent but interacting
forms:
• 1. Linguistic
• 2. Logical-mathematical
• 3. Spatial (visual-pattern manipulation)
• 4. Musical (rhythm and pattern sensitivity)
• 5. Bodily-kinaesthetic (creative use of body)
• 6. Interpersonal (understanding others' intentions and feelings)
• 7. Intrapersonal (self-awareness and self-regulation)
• 8. Naturalistic (knowledge of the natural world)
Each intelligence is relatively independent. Gardner observed gifted individuals who excelled in one
domain while performing typically in others.
2.3 Heredity Evidence
Twin and adoption studies provide the strongest support for genetic influences on IQ:
• Identical twins raised together: IQ correlation ≈ 0.90
• Identical twins raised apart: correlation ≈ 0.72
• Fraternal twins raised together: correlation ≈ 0.60
• Siblings raised together: correlation ≈ 0.50
• Siblings raised apart: correlation ≈ 0.25
• Adopted children's IQ correlates more closely with biological parents than adoptive parents.
3. The Vygotskian (Sociohistorical) Approach
Core idea: Intelligence is not fixed or innate — it develops dynamically through a child's
active interaction with social and cultural environments. Knowledge is internalised from the
outside world.
3.1 Foundational Principles
Social origins of thought
Higher mental functions (attention, memory, reasoning) first appear between people
(interpsychological) and are then internalised as individual cognitive capacity (intrapsychological).
Intelligence is inherently social before it becomes personal.
Language as the primary cognitive tool
Language begins as a social medium (talk with others) and is gradually internalised as private
speech and inner thought. Language shapes thinking; shared knowledge expands the cognitive
capacity of individuals and societies.
A Comparative Study Guide · Based on Feldman (2018) & CBSE Psychology
1. What is Intelligence?
Intelligence is a key psychological dimension explaining individual differences in cognition and
behaviour. It encompasses the capacity to understand complex ideas, learn from experience, adapt
to environments, reason abstractly, and overcome obstacles.
The Oxford Dictionary defines intelligence as "the ability to see, learn, comprehend, and know."
Psychologists, however, distinguish between common-sense notions and formal theoretical
frameworks.
2. The Psychometric Approach
Core idea: Intelligence is a measurable, stable collection of abilities that can be represented
by a single cognitive performance indicator (IQ).
2.1 Key Theorists & Models
Alfred Binet — Uni-factor theory
The first psychologist to formalise intelligence measurement. Defined intelligence as a collection of
talents applicable to any problem. Proposed a single, unified pool of intellectual ability (the uni-
factor or one-component view). Later questioned when factor analysis was applied to test data.
Charles Spearman (1927) — Two-factor theory
Used factor analysis to identify two components:
• g-factor (general intelligence): mental operations common to all cognitive performances — the
core of intellectual ability.
• s-factors (specific abilities): specialised skills relevant to particular tasks (e.g., numerical,
verbal, spatial).
Arthur Jensen — Hierarchical model
Proposed two levels of intelligence operating in a hierarchy:
• Level I — Associative learning: output closely mirrors input (e.g., rote learning, memory tasks).
• Level II — Cognitive competence: higher-order processing that transforms information into
useful output; abstract reasoning.
Raymond Cattell — Fluid & crystallised intelligence
Expanded Spearman's g into two broad factors:
• Fluid intelligence (Gf): novel reasoning, pattern recognition, solving new problems
independent of prior knowledge.
, • Crystallised intelligence (Gc): accumulated knowledge and skills derived from experience and
education.
2.2 Howard Gardner — Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Gardner challenged the single-entity view of intelligence, proposing 8 independent but interacting
forms:
• 1. Linguistic
• 2. Logical-mathematical
• 3. Spatial (visual-pattern manipulation)
• 4. Musical (rhythm and pattern sensitivity)
• 5. Bodily-kinaesthetic (creative use of body)
• 6. Interpersonal (understanding others' intentions and feelings)
• 7. Intrapersonal (self-awareness and self-regulation)
• 8. Naturalistic (knowledge of the natural world)
Each intelligence is relatively independent. Gardner observed gifted individuals who excelled in one
domain while performing typically in others.
2.3 Heredity Evidence
Twin and adoption studies provide the strongest support for genetic influences on IQ:
• Identical twins raised together: IQ correlation ≈ 0.90
• Identical twins raised apart: correlation ≈ 0.72
• Fraternal twins raised together: correlation ≈ 0.60
• Siblings raised together: correlation ≈ 0.50
• Siblings raised apart: correlation ≈ 0.25
• Adopted children's IQ correlates more closely with biological parents than adoptive parents.
3. The Vygotskian (Sociohistorical) Approach
Core idea: Intelligence is not fixed or innate — it develops dynamically through a child's
active interaction with social and cultural environments. Knowledge is internalised from the
outside world.
3.1 Foundational Principles
Social origins of thought
Higher mental functions (attention, memory, reasoning) first appear between people
(interpsychological) and are then internalised as individual cognitive capacity (intrapsychological).
Intelligence is inherently social before it becomes personal.
Language as the primary cognitive tool
Language begins as a social medium (talk with others) and is gradually internalised as private
speech and inner thought. Language shapes thinking; shared knowledge expands the cognitive
capacity of individuals and societies.
