PCOL 838 FINAL EXAM QUESTIONS AND
VERIFIED ANSWERS, COMPLETE STUDY
GUIDE, AND REAL EXAM PREP
MATERIAL LATEST
What is the difference between a well differentiated cancer cell and a
poorly differentiated one? (11/1) - ANS✔✔---well: less aggressive,
easier to get rid of
poorly: can't tell where it comes from, harder to get rid of
What are the three germ layers? Which cancers are associated with
them?
(11/1) - ANS✔✔---Three germ layers = Ectoderm, endoderm,
mesoderm
• Ectoderm, endoderm --> carcinoma
• Mesoderm --> sarcoma
What causes a high prevalence of sarcomas and carcinomas? (11/1) -
ANS✔✔---• During infancy mesenchymal tissues are actively
dividing --> increased prevalence of sarcomas
• High turnover of epithelial layer --> high prevalence of carcinomas.
,What are the different hallmarks of cancer cells? (11/1) - ANS✔✔---
All cancers carry somatic mutations. What is the difference between
passenger mutations and driver mutations? (11/1) - ANS✔✔---
passenger: just happen to be there
driver: drive different hallmarks of cancer
What do driver mutations do? (11/1) - ANS✔✔---• Converts proto-
oncogenes to oncogenes
• Inactivates tumor suppressor genes.
What are oncogenes? (11/1) - ANS✔✔---Oncogenes are genes that
drive cancer initiation and progression.
Does everyone have proto-oncogenes? Why/Why not? (11/1) -
ANS✔✔--- The human genome contains proto-oncogenes, which are
important for normal cellular development and function.
What are the 5 ways a proto-oncogene converted to an oncogene? How
are oncogenes different? (11/1) - ANS✔✔---1. point mutation,
2. gene amplification,
3. chromosomal translocation,
4. local DNA rearrangements,
5. insertional mutagenesis
Page 2 of 67
,•Oncogenes typically lack regulatory domains of proto-oncogenes,
resulting in sustained activation.
How long does it take to empty the stomach approximately? (11/8) -
ANS✔✔ -- 3-5hours
What is the difference between endocrine and exocrine? (11/8) -
ANS✔✔--- exocrine: chemical and mechanical digestion of food
endocrine: hormonal (chemical produced in one organ and the target)
What are the 4 major islet cell types? What do they secrete and which
are the most abundant? (11/8) - ANS✔✔ beta cells - secrete insulin
(60%)
alpha cells - secrete glucagon (30%)
delta cells - secrete somatostatin (10%)
Pancreatic polypeptide secreting cell (1%)
What is the difference in where insulin and proinsulin are catabolized?
(11/8) - ANS✔✔ -- Insulin - 50% is catabolized by liver on first pass
C peptide & proinsulin - catabolized by the kidney and have 3-4 times
longer half- life than insulin
Describe the structure of proinsulin (11/8) - ANS✔✔---
What happens at the level of the beta cell when a healthy person has a
glass of orange juice in the morning? (11/8) - ANS✔✔---woke up had
Page 3 of 67
, some orange juice now glucose is in the system now at hyperglycemic
state
GLUT2 is always on the plasma membrane of the beta cell to take up
this glucose
make pyruvate ->TCA->energy ATP is
inhibitory to the K+ channel cell
becomes more depolarized activates
the Ca channel (voltage activated)
signals insulin release this process is
glucose dependent
Where are the adrenal glands located? (10/18) - ANS✔✔---Adrenal
glands are located at superior pole of each kidney
What does the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla secrete?
(10/18) - ANS✔✔---The adrenal cortex secretes DHEA,
mineralocorticoids (e.g., aldosteron) and glucocorticoids (eg,
cortisol).
What is the common substrate of the hormones synthesized in the
adrenal cortex? (10/18) - ANS✔✔---cholesterol
Page 4 of 67
VERIFIED ANSWERS, COMPLETE STUDY
GUIDE, AND REAL EXAM PREP
MATERIAL LATEST
What is the difference between a well differentiated cancer cell and a
poorly differentiated one? (11/1) - ANS✔✔---well: less aggressive,
easier to get rid of
poorly: can't tell where it comes from, harder to get rid of
What are the three germ layers? Which cancers are associated with
them?
(11/1) - ANS✔✔---Three germ layers = Ectoderm, endoderm,
mesoderm
• Ectoderm, endoderm --> carcinoma
• Mesoderm --> sarcoma
What causes a high prevalence of sarcomas and carcinomas? (11/1) -
ANS✔✔---• During infancy mesenchymal tissues are actively
dividing --> increased prevalence of sarcomas
• High turnover of epithelial layer --> high prevalence of carcinomas.
,What are the different hallmarks of cancer cells? (11/1) - ANS✔✔---
All cancers carry somatic mutations. What is the difference between
passenger mutations and driver mutations? (11/1) - ANS✔✔---
passenger: just happen to be there
driver: drive different hallmarks of cancer
What do driver mutations do? (11/1) - ANS✔✔---• Converts proto-
oncogenes to oncogenes
• Inactivates tumor suppressor genes.
What are oncogenes? (11/1) - ANS✔✔---Oncogenes are genes that
drive cancer initiation and progression.
Does everyone have proto-oncogenes? Why/Why not? (11/1) -
ANS✔✔--- The human genome contains proto-oncogenes, which are
important for normal cellular development and function.
What are the 5 ways a proto-oncogene converted to an oncogene? How
are oncogenes different? (11/1) - ANS✔✔---1. point mutation,
2. gene amplification,
3. chromosomal translocation,
4. local DNA rearrangements,
5. insertional mutagenesis
Page 2 of 67
,•Oncogenes typically lack regulatory domains of proto-oncogenes,
resulting in sustained activation.
How long does it take to empty the stomach approximately? (11/8) -
ANS✔✔ -- 3-5hours
What is the difference between endocrine and exocrine? (11/8) -
ANS✔✔--- exocrine: chemical and mechanical digestion of food
endocrine: hormonal (chemical produced in one organ and the target)
What are the 4 major islet cell types? What do they secrete and which
are the most abundant? (11/8) - ANS✔✔ beta cells - secrete insulin
(60%)
alpha cells - secrete glucagon (30%)
delta cells - secrete somatostatin (10%)
Pancreatic polypeptide secreting cell (1%)
What is the difference in where insulin and proinsulin are catabolized?
(11/8) - ANS✔✔ -- Insulin - 50% is catabolized by liver on first pass
C peptide & proinsulin - catabolized by the kidney and have 3-4 times
longer half- life than insulin
Describe the structure of proinsulin (11/8) - ANS✔✔---
What happens at the level of the beta cell when a healthy person has a
glass of orange juice in the morning? (11/8) - ANS✔✔---woke up had
Page 3 of 67
, some orange juice now glucose is in the system now at hyperglycemic
state
GLUT2 is always on the plasma membrane of the beta cell to take up
this glucose
make pyruvate ->TCA->energy ATP is
inhibitory to the K+ channel cell
becomes more depolarized activates
the Ca channel (voltage activated)
signals insulin release this process is
glucose dependent
Where are the adrenal glands located? (10/18) - ANS✔✔---Adrenal
glands are located at superior pole of each kidney
What does the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla secrete?
(10/18) - ANS✔✔---The adrenal cortex secretes DHEA,
mineralocorticoids (e.g., aldosteron) and glucocorticoids (eg,
cortisol).
What is the common substrate of the hormones synthesized in the
adrenal cortex? (10/18) - ANS✔✔---cholesterol
Page 4 of 67
