NURS 2063 ESSENTIALS OF PATHOPHYSIOLOGY -
EXAM 2 REVIEW SHEET
Covers Modules 4, 5, and 6 – Chapters 27, 28, 29, 31, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41
1. Review common signs and symptoms of gastrointestinal disorders as
a whole
Abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, dysphagia, and constipation.
2. What is gastritis? What are causes?
Inflammation of the stomach lining
Causes: Precipitated by ingestion of irritating substances
► Example: alcohol and aspirin, NSAIDs, viral, bacteria, autoimmune
3. What is pseudomembranous colitis? What contributes to this
condition? What are ways that it can be treated?
Antibiotic-Associated Colitis (Pseudomembranous Enterocolitis).
► Acute inflammation and necrosis of large intestine
► Caused by overgrowth of Clostridium difficile c.diff (exposure to antibiotics)
Treatment= Stop current antibiotic (if possible)
► Treat ischemia
► Treat contributing conditions
► Oral antibiotics - metronidazole (flagyl) or vancomycin
► Recurrence common
► Fecal transplant - transfer of fecal material from another healthy person to the
source patient via enema or gastric tube
► Colectomy – removal of portion of colon
4. Review the causes of chronic kidney disease and the various complications of chronic kidney
disease. 2 main causes: DM and HTN
► Hypertension and cardiovascular disease
► Hypervolemia, escalated atherosclerotic process
► Uremic syndrome
► Retention of metabolic wastes, impaired healing, pruritusm dermatitis, uremic frost
► Metabolic acidosis
► Retention of acidic waste products, hyperkalemia (arrhythmia)
► Electrolyte imbalances
, NURS 2063 ESSENTIALS OF PATHOPHYSIOLOGY -
EXAM 2 REVIEW SHEET
► Retained potassium, phosphorus, magnesium
► Bone and mineral disorders
► Elevated phosphorus and PTH causes altered bone/mineral metabolism
► Kidneys unable to reabsorb calcium
► Malnutrition
► Decreased intake, depression, dietary limitations
► Anemia
► Lack of erythropoietin***, uremia shortens RBCs life
► Pain
► Many reasons; disease itself, treatment, comorbidities
► Depression
► Comorbid conditions; disease itself; disruption of social interactions and relationships
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is due to the progressive and permanent loss of nephrons. Due to the
ability to
self-regulate, to a point, when more than 75% of nephrons are lost, clinical manifestations of CKD appear. CKD
may be a complication of various conditions, however, risk factors such as diabetes and hypertension account
for more than 50% of clients in the U.S. with end-stage renal disease (ESRD).
5. Review the different types of incontinence including: urge, stress, overflow
incontinence, and neurogenic bladder
► Urge- sudden need to void with an involuntary leakage of urine
► If happens at night (nocturia) it is called overactive bladder
► Stress incontinence small amounts of urine are voided involuntarily when there is an increase in
intraabdominal pressure
► Can occur with sneezing, laughing, picking up heavy objects Common in women
following child birth
► Neurogenic bladder - this is from a disruption of nervous communication that controls micturition
► This is seen in CNS disorders such as stroke, Parkinson’s, spinal cord injury
► Person will have difficulty starting urination
► Overflow incontinence - when the bladder becomes full and overflows
► Often occurs seen when there is an obstruction in the urethra such as enlarged
prostate, prolapsed uterus, and urethral stricture
► Seen in patients with diabetes, multiple sclerosis, or spinal cord injury
-
6. What is cystitis? What is some important patient teaching to prevent cystitis?
What can happen if cystitis does not resolve?
, NURS 2063 ESSENTIALS OF PATHOPHYSIOLOGY -
EXAM 2 REVIEW SHEET
► Cystitis- Inflammation of the bladder lining
► From infection, chemical irritants, stones, trauma
► Most cases have an infectious etiology and result from infection originating in the urethra
► Most cases are due to Escherichia coli (E. coli)
► Predisposing factors include female gender, increased age, catheterization, DM,
bladder dysfunction, poor hygiene, and urinary stasis
Patient teaching to decrease reoccurrences
► Urinate before and after sexual intercourse
► Toileting hygiene – wipe from front to back
► Take antibiotics as prescribed
► Increase fluid intake
► Do not resist urge to urinate
► Manifestations - frequency, urgency, dysuria, suprapubic pain, and cloudy urine
► Symptoms in children include fever, irritability, poor feeding, vomiting, and diarrhea
► Symptoms in older adults may include delirium and new-onset incontinence
7. Review clinical manifestations for conditions of the male genitourinary tract such as: BPH,
hydrocele, testicular torsion
BPH- benign prostatic hyperplasia or hypertrophy. Enlarged prostate Etiology unknown possibly related to
aging male hormone system. As prostate tissue increases, it compresses urethra and bladder outlet
Clinical manifestations
► Urinary retention
► Obstruction to flow
► Decreased stream
► Hesitancy; difficulty initiating a stream
► Interruption of the stream
► Infection caused by retention
► TURP is the surgery or Alpha blockers or 5-alpha reductase inhibitors
Hydrocele- Fluid collection surrounding the testicle or spermatic cord
► Develop secondarily to scrotal injury, radiation therapy, infection of epididymis, or
testicular neoplasms
► Scrotum progressively swells by evening.
EXAM 2 REVIEW SHEET
Covers Modules 4, 5, and 6 – Chapters 27, 28, 29, 31, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41
1. Review common signs and symptoms of gastrointestinal disorders as
a whole
Abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, dysphagia, and constipation.
2. What is gastritis? What are causes?
Inflammation of the stomach lining
Causes: Precipitated by ingestion of irritating substances
► Example: alcohol and aspirin, NSAIDs, viral, bacteria, autoimmune
3. What is pseudomembranous colitis? What contributes to this
condition? What are ways that it can be treated?
Antibiotic-Associated Colitis (Pseudomembranous Enterocolitis).
► Acute inflammation and necrosis of large intestine
► Caused by overgrowth of Clostridium difficile c.diff (exposure to antibiotics)
Treatment= Stop current antibiotic (if possible)
► Treat ischemia
► Treat contributing conditions
► Oral antibiotics - metronidazole (flagyl) or vancomycin
► Recurrence common
► Fecal transplant - transfer of fecal material from another healthy person to the
source patient via enema or gastric tube
► Colectomy – removal of portion of colon
4. Review the causes of chronic kidney disease and the various complications of chronic kidney
disease. 2 main causes: DM and HTN
► Hypertension and cardiovascular disease
► Hypervolemia, escalated atherosclerotic process
► Uremic syndrome
► Retention of metabolic wastes, impaired healing, pruritusm dermatitis, uremic frost
► Metabolic acidosis
► Retention of acidic waste products, hyperkalemia (arrhythmia)
► Electrolyte imbalances
, NURS 2063 ESSENTIALS OF PATHOPHYSIOLOGY -
EXAM 2 REVIEW SHEET
► Retained potassium, phosphorus, magnesium
► Bone and mineral disorders
► Elevated phosphorus and PTH causes altered bone/mineral metabolism
► Kidneys unable to reabsorb calcium
► Malnutrition
► Decreased intake, depression, dietary limitations
► Anemia
► Lack of erythropoietin***, uremia shortens RBCs life
► Pain
► Many reasons; disease itself, treatment, comorbidities
► Depression
► Comorbid conditions; disease itself; disruption of social interactions and relationships
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is due to the progressive and permanent loss of nephrons. Due to the
ability to
self-regulate, to a point, when more than 75% of nephrons are lost, clinical manifestations of CKD appear. CKD
may be a complication of various conditions, however, risk factors such as diabetes and hypertension account
for more than 50% of clients in the U.S. with end-stage renal disease (ESRD).
5. Review the different types of incontinence including: urge, stress, overflow
incontinence, and neurogenic bladder
► Urge- sudden need to void with an involuntary leakage of urine
► If happens at night (nocturia) it is called overactive bladder
► Stress incontinence small amounts of urine are voided involuntarily when there is an increase in
intraabdominal pressure
► Can occur with sneezing, laughing, picking up heavy objects Common in women
following child birth
► Neurogenic bladder - this is from a disruption of nervous communication that controls micturition
► This is seen in CNS disorders such as stroke, Parkinson’s, spinal cord injury
► Person will have difficulty starting urination
► Overflow incontinence - when the bladder becomes full and overflows
► Often occurs seen when there is an obstruction in the urethra such as enlarged
prostate, prolapsed uterus, and urethral stricture
► Seen in patients with diabetes, multiple sclerosis, or spinal cord injury
-
6. What is cystitis? What is some important patient teaching to prevent cystitis?
What can happen if cystitis does not resolve?
, NURS 2063 ESSENTIALS OF PATHOPHYSIOLOGY -
EXAM 2 REVIEW SHEET
► Cystitis- Inflammation of the bladder lining
► From infection, chemical irritants, stones, trauma
► Most cases have an infectious etiology and result from infection originating in the urethra
► Most cases are due to Escherichia coli (E. coli)
► Predisposing factors include female gender, increased age, catheterization, DM,
bladder dysfunction, poor hygiene, and urinary stasis
Patient teaching to decrease reoccurrences
► Urinate before and after sexual intercourse
► Toileting hygiene – wipe from front to back
► Take antibiotics as prescribed
► Increase fluid intake
► Do not resist urge to urinate
► Manifestations - frequency, urgency, dysuria, suprapubic pain, and cloudy urine
► Symptoms in children include fever, irritability, poor feeding, vomiting, and diarrhea
► Symptoms in older adults may include delirium and new-onset incontinence
7. Review clinical manifestations for conditions of the male genitourinary tract such as: BPH,
hydrocele, testicular torsion
BPH- benign prostatic hyperplasia or hypertrophy. Enlarged prostate Etiology unknown possibly related to
aging male hormone system. As prostate tissue increases, it compresses urethra and bladder outlet
Clinical manifestations
► Urinary retention
► Obstruction to flow
► Decreased stream
► Hesitancy; difficulty initiating a stream
► Interruption of the stream
► Infection caused by retention
► TURP is the surgery or Alpha blockers or 5-alpha reductase inhibitors
Hydrocele- Fluid collection surrounding the testicle or spermatic cord
► Develop secondarily to scrotal injury, radiation therapy, infection of epididymis, or
testicular neoplasms
► Scrotum progressively swells by evening.
