PSYCH 1XX3 FINAL EXAM 2026/2027 QUESTIONS AND
SOLUTIONS RATED A+
✔✔Action Potential - ✔✔all or nothing event that is triggered at -50mv; frequency and
pattern communicate intended neural message
high frequency = strong signal
low frequency = weak signal
✔✔Refractory Period - ✔✔neuron is unable to fire another action potential until the cell
goes back to resting potential
✔✔Overshoot - ✔✔reaches -100 mv
✔✔Peak - ✔✔+40 mv
✔✔Sodium-Potassium Pump - ✔✔helps maintain ion balance and restore resting
potential following an action potential; expels 3 Na+ and obtains 2 K+
✔✔Saltatory Conduction - ✔✔propagation of action potentials along myelinated axons
from one node of Ranvier to the next node
✔✔Nodes of Ranvier - ✔✔axon not covered by myelin sheath; signal is strengthened
again here fdue to rush of Na+ into the axon
✔✔Neurotransmitters - ✔✔released from presynaptic neuron; help facilitate relay of a
signal to the receptors on the post-synaptic neuron
✔✔Vesicles - ✔✔small intercellular "containers" containing neurotransmitters
✔✔Synaptic Cleft - ✔✔space between two neurons
✔✔Receptors - ✔✔receive specific types of neurotransmitter molecules
✔✔EPSP - ✔✔excitatory postsynaptic potential; depolarizes neuron, making it more
positive and closer to firing threshold, Na+ influx occurs, can be summed in order to
trigger an action potential in two ways
1. Temporal Summation
2. Spatial Summation
✔✔IPSP - ✔✔inhibitory postsynaptic potential; help streamline neural signals to ensure
the appropriate signals, Cl- influx occurs
✔✔Temporal Summation - ✔✔number of EPSPs occurring one after the other from the
same presynaptic connection; slow climb towards threshold
,✔✔Spatial Summation - ✔✔multiple EPSPs generated simultaneously from several
different presynaptic neurons making connections with the same postsynaptic neuron
✔✔Hyperpolarization - ✔✔resting potential is even further away from its threshold to
fire; occurs after an AP
✔✔Stages of Neural Development - ✔✔1. Neurogenesis
2. Migration
3. Differentiation
4. Maturation
✔✔Neurogenesis - ✔✔growth and development of the nervous system
18 days: neural plate
21 days: neural groove
28 days: neural tube
20 weeks: brain
✔✔Ventricular Zone - ✔✔in neural tube; lined with founder cells
✔✔Symmetrical Division - ✔✔day 28 to 42; division of each founder cell leads to two
identical founder cells
✔✔Asymmetrical Division - ✔✔day 42 to 125; dividing founder cell produces one
founder cell and another cell that will become a neuron or a glial cell which migrates
outward from the ventricular zone
✔✔Migration - ✔✔begins on day 42 and continues for 6 weeks; neurons are produced
before glial cells with the exception of radial glial cells; neurons use the the radial glial
cells to to migrate from the ventricular zone to the surface of the cortex
✔✔differentiation - ✔✔process in which the neuron takes on a specific function that is
partly determined by genetics and partly by its environment
✔✔Radial Glial Cells - ✔✔produced before neurons; fibers that extend outward from the
ventricular zone like a form of scaffolding and end at the outer layer of the cortex
✔✔Maturation of Neurons - ✔✔requires neurons to compete and make connections or
risk dying; occurs after neurons have differentiated; neural connections peak at age 1;
number of synapses begin to decline after peak; decline of synapses increases
processing efficiency
✔✔Neuraxis - ✔✔used to describe the position of structures in the central nervous
system; curved
, ✔✔Dorsal - ✔✔back of the axis; up at the head; back for rest of the body
✔✔Ventral - ✔✔front of the axis
✔✔Rostral - ✔✔towards the top of the axis
✔✔Caudal - ✔✔towards the bottom of the axis
✔✔Medial - ✔✔towards the inside of the brain
✔✔Lateral - ✔✔towards the outside of the brain
✔✔Natural Lesion Studies - ✔✔a direct measure of a brain structure's function; hard to
selectively target particular regions and draw conclusions
✔✔Induced Lesion Studies - ✔✔removes certain parts of the brain
✔✔Single Cell Recording - ✔✔small electrode with tip just outside cell body of individual
neuron; records pattern of firing
✔✔CT Scan - Structural Neuroimaging - ✔✔usually done in ER cases because fast and
cheap; picture of brain; X-ray "slices" of brain; quick, easily diagnoses trauma; low
resolution
✔✔MRI - Structural Neuroimaging - ✔✔cleaner than CT; magnetic fields align H+ atoms
found in the brain; can localize tissue
✔✔PET Scan - Functional Neuroimaging - ✔✔radioactive traces injected into blood
stream; tracer used in metabolic processes; active brain areas use more metabolic
resources; constructs image of brain's relative pattern of activity; gives a rough idea and
timing is not accurate
✔✔fMRI - Functional Neuroimaging - ✔✔measures blood oxygen dependent signal;
less invasive that a PET scan; gives a rough idea and timing is not accurate
✔✔EEG and ERP - Functional Neuroimaging - ✔✔rough; mainly waves; static
✔✔Hindbrain - ✔✔first brain region to evolve = 'primitave" brain
Consists of:
- medulla
- pons
- reticular formation
- cerebellum
Purpose:
SOLUTIONS RATED A+
✔✔Action Potential - ✔✔all or nothing event that is triggered at -50mv; frequency and
pattern communicate intended neural message
high frequency = strong signal
low frequency = weak signal
✔✔Refractory Period - ✔✔neuron is unable to fire another action potential until the cell
goes back to resting potential
✔✔Overshoot - ✔✔reaches -100 mv
✔✔Peak - ✔✔+40 mv
✔✔Sodium-Potassium Pump - ✔✔helps maintain ion balance and restore resting
potential following an action potential; expels 3 Na+ and obtains 2 K+
✔✔Saltatory Conduction - ✔✔propagation of action potentials along myelinated axons
from one node of Ranvier to the next node
✔✔Nodes of Ranvier - ✔✔axon not covered by myelin sheath; signal is strengthened
again here fdue to rush of Na+ into the axon
✔✔Neurotransmitters - ✔✔released from presynaptic neuron; help facilitate relay of a
signal to the receptors on the post-synaptic neuron
✔✔Vesicles - ✔✔small intercellular "containers" containing neurotransmitters
✔✔Synaptic Cleft - ✔✔space between two neurons
✔✔Receptors - ✔✔receive specific types of neurotransmitter molecules
✔✔EPSP - ✔✔excitatory postsynaptic potential; depolarizes neuron, making it more
positive and closer to firing threshold, Na+ influx occurs, can be summed in order to
trigger an action potential in two ways
1. Temporal Summation
2. Spatial Summation
✔✔IPSP - ✔✔inhibitory postsynaptic potential; help streamline neural signals to ensure
the appropriate signals, Cl- influx occurs
✔✔Temporal Summation - ✔✔number of EPSPs occurring one after the other from the
same presynaptic connection; slow climb towards threshold
,✔✔Spatial Summation - ✔✔multiple EPSPs generated simultaneously from several
different presynaptic neurons making connections with the same postsynaptic neuron
✔✔Hyperpolarization - ✔✔resting potential is even further away from its threshold to
fire; occurs after an AP
✔✔Stages of Neural Development - ✔✔1. Neurogenesis
2. Migration
3. Differentiation
4. Maturation
✔✔Neurogenesis - ✔✔growth and development of the nervous system
18 days: neural plate
21 days: neural groove
28 days: neural tube
20 weeks: brain
✔✔Ventricular Zone - ✔✔in neural tube; lined with founder cells
✔✔Symmetrical Division - ✔✔day 28 to 42; division of each founder cell leads to two
identical founder cells
✔✔Asymmetrical Division - ✔✔day 42 to 125; dividing founder cell produces one
founder cell and another cell that will become a neuron or a glial cell which migrates
outward from the ventricular zone
✔✔Migration - ✔✔begins on day 42 and continues for 6 weeks; neurons are produced
before glial cells with the exception of radial glial cells; neurons use the the radial glial
cells to to migrate from the ventricular zone to the surface of the cortex
✔✔differentiation - ✔✔process in which the neuron takes on a specific function that is
partly determined by genetics and partly by its environment
✔✔Radial Glial Cells - ✔✔produced before neurons; fibers that extend outward from the
ventricular zone like a form of scaffolding and end at the outer layer of the cortex
✔✔Maturation of Neurons - ✔✔requires neurons to compete and make connections or
risk dying; occurs after neurons have differentiated; neural connections peak at age 1;
number of synapses begin to decline after peak; decline of synapses increases
processing efficiency
✔✔Neuraxis - ✔✔used to describe the position of structures in the central nervous
system; curved
, ✔✔Dorsal - ✔✔back of the axis; up at the head; back for rest of the body
✔✔Ventral - ✔✔front of the axis
✔✔Rostral - ✔✔towards the top of the axis
✔✔Caudal - ✔✔towards the bottom of the axis
✔✔Medial - ✔✔towards the inside of the brain
✔✔Lateral - ✔✔towards the outside of the brain
✔✔Natural Lesion Studies - ✔✔a direct measure of a brain structure's function; hard to
selectively target particular regions and draw conclusions
✔✔Induced Lesion Studies - ✔✔removes certain parts of the brain
✔✔Single Cell Recording - ✔✔small electrode with tip just outside cell body of individual
neuron; records pattern of firing
✔✔CT Scan - Structural Neuroimaging - ✔✔usually done in ER cases because fast and
cheap; picture of brain; X-ray "slices" of brain; quick, easily diagnoses trauma; low
resolution
✔✔MRI - Structural Neuroimaging - ✔✔cleaner than CT; magnetic fields align H+ atoms
found in the brain; can localize tissue
✔✔PET Scan - Functional Neuroimaging - ✔✔radioactive traces injected into blood
stream; tracer used in metabolic processes; active brain areas use more metabolic
resources; constructs image of brain's relative pattern of activity; gives a rough idea and
timing is not accurate
✔✔fMRI - Functional Neuroimaging - ✔✔measures blood oxygen dependent signal;
less invasive that a PET scan; gives a rough idea and timing is not accurate
✔✔EEG and ERP - Functional Neuroimaging - ✔✔rough; mainly waves; static
✔✔Hindbrain - ✔✔first brain region to evolve = 'primitave" brain
Consists of:
- medulla
- pons
- reticular formation
- cerebellum
Purpose:
