COMPARATIVE RELIGION (REL 221)
LECTURER: SR. CHRISTINE KENEEMA, DM
1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO RELIGION
All people, by virtue of being human, face certain fundamental questions. These questions are
universal, because humans are spiritual beings. Along with being physical, rational, and emotional, we
have the capacity for self-reflection; we have a conscience; we are spiritual.
Regardless of how one chooses to answer different questions, religious questions are inevitable.
Generally, the religions try to answer the following questions: What is the human condition? What is
salvation? What is our destiny? What is right, what is wrong? What is the nature of the world? What is
the ultimate reality, and how is it revealed?
Studying the religious traditions of the world can be an unsettling enterprise. Religions answer
life’s most profound and important questions. But there are many religions, each offering its own
answers. How can this be? We all share a common humanity, so can more than one true answer to each of
life’s questions be found? If ultimate reality, or God, is truly ultimate, can more than one God exist?
Why study religion? After all, we have been told that religion is a personal matter and that while
we should be informed about the nature of our own religion, the religion of others need scarcely concern
us. We have heard that religions are of little real consequence; that we might more profitably spend our
time studying subjects of immediate practical value in the pursuit of a career; that religions are becoming
passé (outdated) in a scientifically progressive world. Why, then should any student take time from his or
her academic career to study the religions of the world?
We might justify the study of religions in the same manner that we justify the study of other
subjects. Anyone who is interested in the history of the world and in the antecedents of his or her own
culture is impelled to study world religions. Different religions have basic philosophical differences. This
is not to say that people of different religions and cultures cannot live in peace together; it is to say that if
there is to be peace, these differences must be known and respected.
This course is divided into five parts. The first part will concentrate on the meaning of
comparative religion; reasons for studying Comparative Religion and the functions and dimensions of
religion. The second part focuses on the primal religious traditions with special reference to African
Traditional Religion (ATR). The third part is dedicated to the religions originating in India, consisting of
Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism and Sikhism. The fourth part consists of religions originating in China, and
they include Confucianism, Taoism and Shinto. Part five will focus on the religions originating in the
Middle East, they are Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Some similarities and differences between the
various religions will be examined.
1.1. What is religion?
The word Religion is derived from a Latin word “religio” which means “fear or awe” in the
presence of a supernatural reality or being. Religion can be simply described as belief in spiritual beings.
The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines religion as belief in and worship of a superhuman controlling
power, especially a personal God or gods.
Religion is an aspect of human experience that may intersect, incorporate, or transcend other
aspects of life and society. Religion in this understanding includes a complex of activities that cannot be
reduced to any single aspect of human experience. It is a part of individual life but also of group
dynamics. Religion includes patterns of behavior but also patterns of language and thought.
1.2. Two approaches to the study of religions
1
, The challenges of studying the religions of others are rather minimal for those who are not
religious themselves. Most people, however, are religious and must see the religions of others from within
their own tradition. This can be especially difficult from the point of view of religious traditions that
rigidly maintain their own version of the truth while rejecting the versions of others. But many religions
are highly tolerant of the perspectives of others.
In the face of these challenges, the study of world religions is enriched when approached in two
ways.
1. The comparative approach: Friendrich Max Müller, one of the founders of the study of
comparative religions, pointed out that to know just one religion is to know none. Studying
many religions will enable us to know each one, including our own, more precisely.
2. Imperative approach: is the study of religions with empathy, which is the capacity for seeing
things from another’s perspective. American proverb advises, “Never judge other people until
you have walked a mile in their moccasins.” The need to cultivate empathy is one of the most
challenging and rewarding aspects of the study of religions.
1.3 Three major categories of believers/students of Comparative Religion
Students of Comparative Religion are required to adopt an attitude that renders their work more
effective in the study of religion in order to reduce the risk of projecting what they are in the other,
amplifying what appears attractive, among others. Here we consider three major attitudes observed in
many believers.
1.3.1 First Category: Narrow Mind
Many people simply regard religion through narrow lenses and, therefore, fail to have a bigger
picture, particularly when they watch believers’ practices and what is said in the media. We should know
that religion is always bigger than the sum total of believers, for a religion is not made of believers alone
but of persons, past and present, written sources, objects and physical structures. For example, it has been
observed that there are many people who simply regard Islam as violence and war, particularly when they
refer not only to history of Islam but also to what is said in the media every day. Although, a good
number of violent acts and attitudes are mentioned and even glorified in the Qur’an (2:190; 4:74-77; 84-
89; 5: 35; 8:38; 9:13, 29; 47:4; 61:10), it would be so narrow to assert that Islam is violence. While other
people regard ATR as paganism, ancestral worship, among others, yet the religion is more than that.
Sometimes narrow mindedness is the fruit of ignorance, biasness and lack of objective information of the
other.
1.3.2 Second Category: Very Broad Mind
Others represent a too wide mind. The concept “wide”, here, does not refer to a view that is open
to other views or accepts other images of a reality (that would be very interesting) but to lack of personal
critical opinion about the existing reality, lack of realism. Thus a person having a too wide view is
somebody who, after going through the history of religions and reading some writings on various world
religions will not only make any distinction between the various religions but will neglect all their
differences. He will quickly say that all religions are the same and we can belong to wherever we find
ourselves.
A too wide view takes all religions as being equal because of the few or many similarities in
doctrines and expressions that someone may find without deepening them. For example, a person with a
too wide mind will jump to a conclusion that since Christians and Muslims worship one God, their
Scriptures contain the names “Jesus and Maryam”, they are not different but the same. Such view does
not go far beyond appearances and, indeed, no question is asked about the other. They ignore moreover
2
,that differences do make sense, especially when they are well examined. Some have made such
sentiments: there is no difference between what is taught in churches and mosques, all religions forbid
evil and encourage good, all religions work for good. This does not make them the same.
Once more, this too wide view is identified, sometimes, to a relativist attitude, which does not
confront truths that are accessible to reason. Anyway, unlike the first view, the too wide view does not
entertain fight but a heavy and dangerous sleep. Both are still in a stage, which needs absolutely reason,
and openness, frankness and sincerity.
1.3.3 Third Category: Middle Ground Mind
Some others stand for a middle ground mind. With this view, we have somehow arrived to the
land of reflection and deep or critical knowledge of the other, objectivity and openness, and intense
studies of the available materials. The expression “middle ground” carries a meaning that promotes
respect and peace in the world. But how can we overcome the first two perspectives above mentioned
and arrive to this stage?
First of all, it is by listening to God’s plan of salvation, desiring its full realization and working for
it that someone might have a middle view concerning various religions. The whole human race is united
in its origin and its destiny. God is active in the hearts of human beings, drawing them to him; as he is
active in the different religious rites, which give cooperate expression to the human response to God. Yet
human beings have been created with free will” I think we should be able to understand what different
religions offer to those millions of people who remain faithful to their doctrine. I believe that this is the
starting point of any objective opinion we may have vis-à-vis other religions.
Secondly, a middle view is neither a natural nor a priori approach that someone would acquire
without tears, without misunderstandings it is rather a product of a research work in which faith and
reason live together without confusion. Through reading books or articles written by people of various
religions of the world, with more or less objective interpretation of texts, by meeting people of different
backgrounds, origins and education, someone might attain a middle view with regard to various religions.
It is man’s vocation to know God, himself, the world and their relationships (object of philosophy) but
how will we know if we do not study? And how will we study realities that we reject and neglect? Good
will is necessary, but it is not enough. A planned study of the other religions is required if Interreligious
relationships are not to stagnate on the superficial level of generalizations. It takes time and meditation to
accept this but that is where we must turn up.
Thirdly, a person with a middle view acknowledges differences and accepts them as a source of
attraction rather than a cause of antagonism. Acknowledging their numerous similarities, an unrestricted
study of various religions of the world will surely show that all religions have fundamental differences
concerning the conception of God, man and the universe. Their theological, moral, pastoral and legal
approach of the existing realities is quite different. For instance, in Islam, God is not accepted as one in
three persons, the divine nature of Jesus is denied; man does not need redemption through Jesus. In
Christianity, the Qur’an is not accepted as the final revelation; Muhammad is not the seal of the prophets.
These differences must bring us closer to others with the intention of loving them. I think that it is a great
sign of wisdom to love those who think differently from us. Such view becomes a wisdom that seeks for
wisdom wherever it can be found.
We therefore need to move from narrow mind and too wide mind to middle mind. A person with middle
view opens his mind and soul to the other side of the sea. He goes into studies in order to have a critical
mind, defines his language and expressions and builds a discursive reasoning. Without dishonest
compromise, he brings up the differences, neglects some and considers some others that are helpful.
Therefore, in spite of the differences between various religions of the world, which may be destructive, a
3
, middle view bearer throws a bridge over the river that separates them, a bridge where the two meet and
discuss not only about the river but also about the sea. If a narrow view as well as a wide/broad view of
religions lead to things that are horrible in the sight of God and men of good will, a middle view which is
not an end but a sound instrument that directs the mind of those who are moved by the Highest Good is
recommended.
1.4 The meaning of comparative religion
Comparative religion is a field of religious studies that analyzes the similarities and differences of
themes, myths, rituals and concepts among the world’s religions. It designates our task to compare and
examine themes that cut across the various religions i.e. common themes. Comparative study of religion
demonstrates that every religion possesses some measure of truth.
1.5 Reasons for studying Comparative religion
To acquire knowledge of the historical development of the major strands of the religions to be
discussed.
To acquire knowledge and overcome our ignorance about the beliefs and practices of other
religions.
Since religion and culture are related, the study can help us to understand the African culture
which is deeply rooted in ATR, Islam and Christianity.
Still one can understand how religion can be a cause of violence, as well as promoter of peace.
To identify some of the challenges that confront contemporary adherents to these religions.
Religion being an integral part of human life, it is, therefore, an appropriate subject for scientific
analysis.
The study helps us to formulate our personal beliefs because we are all continuously learning,
growing and changing.
An objective study of comparative religion can help learners to be tolerant and respectful towards
those whose religions are different from their own and thereby bring peace and harmony in
society.
1.6 Functions of religion
According to the anthropologists, religion helps to unite people in a shared experience and
explanation of life. It provides a pattern of human behavior, often in response to the hazards of
life.
Sociologists stress the social dimension of religious ideas. To them region provides an agreed way
of looking at the world. It gives an individual a sense of purpose and meaning.
Religion plays a significant role in the self-organization of personality. In this regard, religion
becomes part of the individual’s personal behavior i.e. leads to personality development.
It provides general conceptions about the order of existence (creation) i.e. how things exist and
why they exist.
Karl Marx, a sociologist, thinks that religion is the opium of the people. It gives relief to the
oppressed; it gives heart to the heartless. It also relieves people of oppression.
Religion influences economy/development. Its teachings encourage adherents to be hardworking.
Many projects in our society have been initiated by various religions e.g. schools, hospitals, banks,
etc.
It encourages peace and harmony in society through its teachings to the adherents.
4
LECTURER: SR. CHRISTINE KENEEMA, DM
1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO RELIGION
All people, by virtue of being human, face certain fundamental questions. These questions are
universal, because humans are spiritual beings. Along with being physical, rational, and emotional, we
have the capacity for self-reflection; we have a conscience; we are spiritual.
Regardless of how one chooses to answer different questions, religious questions are inevitable.
Generally, the religions try to answer the following questions: What is the human condition? What is
salvation? What is our destiny? What is right, what is wrong? What is the nature of the world? What is
the ultimate reality, and how is it revealed?
Studying the religious traditions of the world can be an unsettling enterprise. Religions answer
life’s most profound and important questions. But there are many religions, each offering its own
answers. How can this be? We all share a common humanity, so can more than one true answer to each of
life’s questions be found? If ultimate reality, or God, is truly ultimate, can more than one God exist?
Why study religion? After all, we have been told that religion is a personal matter and that while
we should be informed about the nature of our own religion, the religion of others need scarcely concern
us. We have heard that religions are of little real consequence; that we might more profitably spend our
time studying subjects of immediate practical value in the pursuit of a career; that religions are becoming
passé (outdated) in a scientifically progressive world. Why, then should any student take time from his or
her academic career to study the religions of the world?
We might justify the study of religions in the same manner that we justify the study of other
subjects. Anyone who is interested in the history of the world and in the antecedents of his or her own
culture is impelled to study world religions. Different religions have basic philosophical differences. This
is not to say that people of different religions and cultures cannot live in peace together; it is to say that if
there is to be peace, these differences must be known and respected.
This course is divided into five parts. The first part will concentrate on the meaning of
comparative religion; reasons for studying Comparative Religion and the functions and dimensions of
religion. The second part focuses on the primal religious traditions with special reference to African
Traditional Religion (ATR). The third part is dedicated to the religions originating in India, consisting of
Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism and Sikhism. The fourth part consists of religions originating in China, and
they include Confucianism, Taoism and Shinto. Part five will focus on the religions originating in the
Middle East, they are Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Some similarities and differences between the
various religions will be examined.
1.1. What is religion?
The word Religion is derived from a Latin word “religio” which means “fear or awe” in the
presence of a supernatural reality or being. Religion can be simply described as belief in spiritual beings.
The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines religion as belief in and worship of a superhuman controlling
power, especially a personal God or gods.
Religion is an aspect of human experience that may intersect, incorporate, or transcend other
aspects of life and society. Religion in this understanding includes a complex of activities that cannot be
reduced to any single aspect of human experience. It is a part of individual life but also of group
dynamics. Religion includes patterns of behavior but also patterns of language and thought.
1.2. Two approaches to the study of religions
1
, The challenges of studying the religions of others are rather minimal for those who are not
religious themselves. Most people, however, are religious and must see the religions of others from within
their own tradition. This can be especially difficult from the point of view of religious traditions that
rigidly maintain their own version of the truth while rejecting the versions of others. But many religions
are highly tolerant of the perspectives of others.
In the face of these challenges, the study of world religions is enriched when approached in two
ways.
1. The comparative approach: Friendrich Max Müller, one of the founders of the study of
comparative religions, pointed out that to know just one religion is to know none. Studying
many religions will enable us to know each one, including our own, more precisely.
2. Imperative approach: is the study of religions with empathy, which is the capacity for seeing
things from another’s perspective. American proverb advises, “Never judge other people until
you have walked a mile in their moccasins.” The need to cultivate empathy is one of the most
challenging and rewarding aspects of the study of religions.
1.3 Three major categories of believers/students of Comparative Religion
Students of Comparative Religion are required to adopt an attitude that renders their work more
effective in the study of religion in order to reduce the risk of projecting what they are in the other,
amplifying what appears attractive, among others. Here we consider three major attitudes observed in
many believers.
1.3.1 First Category: Narrow Mind
Many people simply regard religion through narrow lenses and, therefore, fail to have a bigger
picture, particularly when they watch believers’ practices and what is said in the media. We should know
that religion is always bigger than the sum total of believers, for a religion is not made of believers alone
but of persons, past and present, written sources, objects and physical structures. For example, it has been
observed that there are many people who simply regard Islam as violence and war, particularly when they
refer not only to history of Islam but also to what is said in the media every day. Although, a good
number of violent acts and attitudes are mentioned and even glorified in the Qur’an (2:190; 4:74-77; 84-
89; 5: 35; 8:38; 9:13, 29; 47:4; 61:10), it would be so narrow to assert that Islam is violence. While other
people regard ATR as paganism, ancestral worship, among others, yet the religion is more than that.
Sometimes narrow mindedness is the fruit of ignorance, biasness and lack of objective information of the
other.
1.3.2 Second Category: Very Broad Mind
Others represent a too wide mind. The concept “wide”, here, does not refer to a view that is open
to other views or accepts other images of a reality (that would be very interesting) but to lack of personal
critical opinion about the existing reality, lack of realism. Thus a person having a too wide view is
somebody who, after going through the history of religions and reading some writings on various world
religions will not only make any distinction between the various religions but will neglect all their
differences. He will quickly say that all religions are the same and we can belong to wherever we find
ourselves.
A too wide view takes all religions as being equal because of the few or many similarities in
doctrines and expressions that someone may find without deepening them. For example, a person with a
too wide mind will jump to a conclusion that since Christians and Muslims worship one God, their
Scriptures contain the names “Jesus and Maryam”, they are not different but the same. Such view does
not go far beyond appearances and, indeed, no question is asked about the other. They ignore moreover
2
,that differences do make sense, especially when they are well examined. Some have made such
sentiments: there is no difference between what is taught in churches and mosques, all religions forbid
evil and encourage good, all religions work for good. This does not make them the same.
Once more, this too wide view is identified, sometimes, to a relativist attitude, which does not
confront truths that are accessible to reason. Anyway, unlike the first view, the too wide view does not
entertain fight but a heavy and dangerous sleep. Both are still in a stage, which needs absolutely reason,
and openness, frankness and sincerity.
1.3.3 Third Category: Middle Ground Mind
Some others stand for a middle ground mind. With this view, we have somehow arrived to the
land of reflection and deep or critical knowledge of the other, objectivity and openness, and intense
studies of the available materials. The expression “middle ground” carries a meaning that promotes
respect and peace in the world. But how can we overcome the first two perspectives above mentioned
and arrive to this stage?
First of all, it is by listening to God’s plan of salvation, desiring its full realization and working for
it that someone might have a middle view concerning various religions. The whole human race is united
in its origin and its destiny. God is active in the hearts of human beings, drawing them to him; as he is
active in the different religious rites, which give cooperate expression to the human response to God. Yet
human beings have been created with free will” I think we should be able to understand what different
religions offer to those millions of people who remain faithful to their doctrine. I believe that this is the
starting point of any objective opinion we may have vis-à-vis other religions.
Secondly, a middle view is neither a natural nor a priori approach that someone would acquire
without tears, without misunderstandings it is rather a product of a research work in which faith and
reason live together without confusion. Through reading books or articles written by people of various
religions of the world, with more or less objective interpretation of texts, by meeting people of different
backgrounds, origins and education, someone might attain a middle view with regard to various religions.
It is man’s vocation to know God, himself, the world and their relationships (object of philosophy) but
how will we know if we do not study? And how will we study realities that we reject and neglect? Good
will is necessary, but it is not enough. A planned study of the other religions is required if Interreligious
relationships are not to stagnate on the superficial level of generalizations. It takes time and meditation to
accept this but that is where we must turn up.
Thirdly, a person with a middle view acknowledges differences and accepts them as a source of
attraction rather than a cause of antagonism. Acknowledging their numerous similarities, an unrestricted
study of various religions of the world will surely show that all religions have fundamental differences
concerning the conception of God, man and the universe. Their theological, moral, pastoral and legal
approach of the existing realities is quite different. For instance, in Islam, God is not accepted as one in
three persons, the divine nature of Jesus is denied; man does not need redemption through Jesus. In
Christianity, the Qur’an is not accepted as the final revelation; Muhammad is not the seal of the prophets.
These differences must bring us closer to others with the intention of loving them. I think that it is a great
sign of wisdom to love those who think differently from us. Such view becomes a wisdom that seeks for
wisdom wherever it can be found.
We therefore need to move from narrow mind and too wide mind to middle mind. A person with middle
view opens his mind and soul to the other side of the sea. He goes into studies in order to have a critical
mind, defines his language and expressions and builds a discursive reasoning. Without dishonest
compromise, he brings up the differences, neglects some and considers some others that are helpful.
Therefore, in spite of the differences between various religions of the world, which may be destructive, a
3
, middle view bearer throws a bridge over the river that separates them, a bridge where the two meet and
discuss not only about the river but also about the sea. If a narrow view as well as a wide/broad view of
religions lead to things that are horrible in the sight of God and men of good will, a middle view which is
not an end but a sound instrument that directs the mind of those who are moved by the Highest Good is
recommended.
1.4 The meaning of comparative religion
Comparative religion is a field of religious studies that analyzes the similarities and differences of
themes, myths, rituals and concepts among the world’s religions. It designates our task to compare and
examine themes that cut across the various religions i.e. common themes. Comparative study of religion
demonstrates that every religion possesses some measure of truth.
1.5 Reasons for studying Comparative religion
To acquire knowledge of the historical development of the major strands of the religions to be
discussed.
To acquire knowledge and overcome our ignorance about the beliefs and practices of other
religions.
Since religion and culture are related, the study can help us to understand the African culture
which is deeply rooted in ATR, Islam and Christianity.
Still one can understand how religion can be a cause of violence, as well as promoter of peace.
To identify some of the challenges that confront contemporary adherents to these religions.
Religion being an integral part of human life, it is, therefore, an appropriate subject for scientific
analysis.
The study helps us to formulate our personal beliefs because we are all continuously learning,
growing and changing.
An objective study of comparative religion can help learners to be tolerant and respectful towards
those whose religions are different from their own and thereby bring peace and harmony in
society.
1.6 Functions of religion
According to the anthropologists, religion helps to unite people in a shared experience and
explanation of life. It provides a pattern of human behavior, often in response to the hazards of
life.
Sociologists stress the social dimension of religious ideas. To them region provides an agreed way
of looking at the world. It gives an individual a sense of purpose and meaning.
Religion plays a significant role in the self-organization of personality. In this regard, religion
becomes part of the individual’s personal behavior i.e. leads to personality development.
It provides general conceptions about the order of existence (creation) i.e. how things exist and
why they exist.
Karl Marx, a sociologist, thinks that religion is the opium of the people. It gives relief to the
oppressed; it gives heart to the heartless. It also relieves people of oppression.
Religion influences economy/development. Its teachings encourage adherents to be hardworking.
Many projects in our society have been initiated by various religions e.g. schools, hospitals, banks,
etc.
It encourages peace and harmony in society through its teachings to the adherents.
4
