ANATOMY 251A & P 1 Final Review Recommended | 2019/2020 REVIEW

This document contains 39 pages of Anatomy 251A Final Exam Review, and it has been recommended by subject expert. Wishing you the best!!!!!! Final Review Chapters 1 – 9 Chapter 1  Define Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy: Study of the Form and Structure of body parts. Physiology: Study of the body’s Function  Anatomical Terms and Uses SUPERIOR a part is above another part, or closer to the head INFERIOR a part is below another part, or toward the feet ANTERIOR toward the front; ventral POSTERIOR opposite of anterior; toward the back; dorsal MEDIAL relates to an imaginary midline dividing the body into equal right and left halves LATERAL toward the side with respect to the imaginary midline IPSILATERAL pertains to the same side CONTRALATERAL refers to the opposite side PROXIMAL a part that is closer to the trunk of the body or closer to another specified point of reference than another point DISTAL opposite of proximal; a particular body part is farther from the trunk or farther from another specified point of reference than another part SUPERFICIAL situated near the surface PERIPHERAL outward or near the surface; describes location of certain blood vessels and nerves DEEP parts that are more internal  DirectionalFinal Review Chapters 1 – 9  Anatomical Planes SAGITTAL lengthwise cut that divides the body into right and left portions MIDSAGITTAL passes along the midline and divides the body into equal parts; median PARASAGITTAL sagittal section lateral to midline TRANSVERSE horizontal; a cut that divides the body into superior and inferior portions CORONAL frontal; a section that divides the body into anterior and posterior portions CROSS SECTION a cut across the structure OBLIQUE an angular cut LONGITUDINAL a lengthwise cutFinal Review Chapters 1 – 9 Cranial Cavity: The Brain Vertebral canal/Spinal Cavity: Spinal cord Thoracic Cavity: Lungs, heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus. Abdominal Cavity: Stomach, liver, spleen, gallbladder, small and large intestines, and kidneys. Pelvic Cavity: Terminal end of large intestines, urinary bladder, internal reproductive organs Pleural Cavity RT & LT: each one contains one lung Pericardial Cavity: Contains the heart Axial Portion: Includes the head, neck and trunk of the bod Appendicular portion: the upper and lower limbs. EPIGASTRIC REGION upper middle portion LEFT and RIGHT HYPOCHONDRIAC REGIONS on the left/right side of the epigastric region UMBILICAL REGION central portion LEFT and RIGHT LUMBAR REGIONS on the left/right side of the umbilical region HYPOGRASTRIC REGIONS lower middle portion LEFT and RIGHT ILIAC (INGUINAL) REGIONS left/right side of the hypogastric region ABDOMINAL region between the thorax and pelvis  HomeostasisFinal Review Chapters 1 – 9 When the bodies internal environmental remains within certain physiological ranges or limits. State of equilibrium in the body with respect to functions, composition of fluids and tissues. Homeostasis is a dynamic condition. In response to changing conditions, the body’s parameters can shift among points in a narrow range that is compatible with maintaining life.  Feedback MechanismsFinal Review Chapters 1 – 9 Negative Feedback Positive Feedback The final effects are negative (opposite) to the stimulus. The original stimulus is encouraged rather than negated. Finally, it ensures stability of the system. It is often a reason for speedy loss of internal stability. This type of feedback is used frequently. It is used less frequently in our body. It involves continuous modification. It does not require continuous adjustment. It is usually directed to maintain hormone levels within normal range. It reduces the change (increase or decrease) in the normal value. Instead of inhibiting the original stimulus, it usually increases the deviation from the normal value and promotes abnormal levels. It usually helps maintain homeostatic functions. It is rarely used to maintain homeostatic functions. Chapter 2  Chemistry Review  TonicityFinal Review Chapters 1 – 9  Biochemical ReactionsFinal Review Chapters 1 – 9 Chapter 3  Cell structure  The plasma membrane forms the cell’s flexible outer surface, separating the cell’s internal environment (everything inside the cell) from the external environment(everything outside the cell)  It is a selective barrier that regulates the flow of materials into and out of a cell. This selectivity helps establish and maintain the appropriate environment for normal cellular activities.  Plays a key role in communication among cells and between cells and their external environment.  The cytoplasm consists of all the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the nucleus. This compartment has two components: cytosol and organelles. Cytosol the fluid portion of cytoplasm, also called intracellular fluid, contains water, dissolved solutes, and suspended particles. Within the cytosol are several different types of organelles. Each type of organelle has a characteristic shape and specific functions. What does the Nucleolus do? o Produce Ribosomes  This structure is made up of proteins and ribonucleic acids (RNA).  Its main function is to rewrite ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and combine it with proteins.Final Review Chapters 1 – 9  Organelle Function o Centrosomes: contain two structures called centrioles and pericentriolar. The pericentriolar material contains tubulins which help grow the mitotic spindle o Cilia/ Flagella: help with movement o Ribosome: are made in the nucleolus and are responsible for making protein. They are usually located in the rough endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria or in the cytoplasm o Endoplasmic Reticulum: a group of membranes that extend from the nuclear envelope into the cytoplasm. There are two forms of ER:  Rough ER: continuous nuclear membrane with folded sacs, studded with ribosomes on the outside. Helps process and sort protein.  Smooth ER: extends from the rough ER and does not contain ribosomes. They contain enzymes that synthesize fatty acids and steroids. Also responsible for lipids. o Golgi Complex/ Apparatus: receives proteins and lipids from the ER to sort and transport them via vesicles o Lysosomes: vesicles that contain digestive enzymes responsible for breaking down materials o Peroxisomes: smaller than lysosomes, this "microbodies" use oxygen to oxidize material o Proteasome: barrel like structures that degrade unwanted, unused, or faulty proteins by cutting them into peptides. o Mitochondrion: the power house of the cell, producing ATP (energy)Final Review Chapters 1 – 9  Cell Division: Mitosis and Meiosis I & IIFinal Review Chapters 1 – 9 Chapter 4  Tissue organization  Different types and subtypesFinal Review Chapters 1 – 9Final Review Chapters 1 – 9  Cell junctionsFinal Review Chapters 1 – 9  Types of Connective tissueFinal Review Chapters 1 – 9  Types of Epithelial tissueFinal Review Chapters 1 – 9 Chapter 5  Integumentary System Epidermis (outermost layer) contains - Keratnocytes: tough fbrous protein that provides protecton; epidermal cell that produces Keratn - Melanocytes: mature melanin forming cell produces pigment; - Intraepidermal macrophages (Langerhans cells): specialize in antgen presentaton and belong to the skin immune system. Involved in the immune responses - Tactle epithelial cells (Merkel cells): essental for light touch sensaton and found in the skin of vertebrates  Layers of Skin Contains four layers of thin skin and five layers of thick skin. From deep to superficial they are: Britney Spears Glows Like Candy Stratum Basale Stratum Spinosum Stratus Granulosum Stratum Lucid Stratum CorneumFinal Review Chapters 1 – 9  Know the modelFinal Review Chapters 1 – 9  Glands and Vasculature Chapter 6  Bone TissueFinal Review Chapters 1 – 9  Parts of Bone  Bone MatrixFinal Review Chapters 1 – 9 FRACTU RE DESCRIPTION Open (Compo und) The broken ends of the bone protrude through the skin. Conversely, a closed (simple) fracture does not break the skin. Commi nuted The bone is splintered, crushed, or broken into pieces at the site of impact, and smaller bone fragments lie between the two main fragments. Greenst ick A partial fracture in which one side of the bone is broken and the other side bends; similar to the way a green twig breaks on one side while the other side stays whole, but bends; occurs only in children, whose bones are not fully ossifed and contain more organic material than inorganic material. Impacte d One end of the fractured bone is forcefully driven into the interior of the other. Pott Fracture of the distal end of the lateral leg bone (fbula), with serious injury of the distal tibial articulation. Colles Fracture of the distal end of the lateral forearm bone (radius) in which the distal fragment is displaced posteriorly.  Know the model The periosteum is only found on areas where there is no articular cartilage  Types of BoneFinal Review Chapters 1 – 9Final Review Chapters 1 – 9 Chapters 7 & 8  Skeleton  Know which bones are Axial vs. Appendicular?Final Review Chapters 1 – 9  Differences in Structure & Function The skeletal system performs vital functions — support, movement, protection, blood cell production, calcium storage and endocrine regulation  Know Bony Landmarks o Depressions and openings  Allow the passage of soft tissues  Form joints o Processes  Projections or outgrowths that form joints  Serve as attachment points for ligaments and tendonsFinal Review Chapters 1 – 9Final Review Chapters 1 – 9Final Review Chapters 1 – 9 Chapter 9  Joints A joint is a point of contact between:  Two or more bones  Cartilage and bone  Teeth and bone o Ball-and-socket joints. Ball-and-socket joints, such as the shoulder and hip joints, allow backward, forward, sideways, and rotatng movements. o Planar joints. Permits nonaxial gliding movements within a plane. o Saddle joints. Permits biaxial angular (side to side, up and down) movements. o Hinge joints (door). Hinge joints, such as in the fngers, knees, elbows, and toes, allow only bending and straightening movements. o Pivot joints. Pivot joints, such as the neck joints, allow limited rotatng movements. o Ellipsoidal joints. Ellipsoidal joints, such as the wrist joint, allow all types of movement except pivotal movements o Gliding (condyloid) joints move against each other on a single plane. Major gliding joints include the intervertebral joints and the bones of the wrists and ankles.Final Review Chapters 1 – 9  Structural vs Functional Classification Structural Classification Fibrous Joints – Bones held together by connective tissues; between bones in close contact; skull sutures and teeth; no joint cavity Cartilaginous Joints – Bones held together by cartilage; pubic symphysis and in vertebral discs; no joint cavity Synovial Joints: Bones separated by a joint cavity; most complex; allow free movement; hip, knee, shoulder Functional Classification 1. Synarthrosis joint permits no movement. Structurally, it may be a fbrous or cartilaginous joint. 2. Amphiarthrosis joint permits only slight movement. Structurally, it may be a fbrous or cartilaginous joint. 3. Diarthrosis joint is a freely movable joint. Structurally, it is always a synovial joint.Final Review Chapters 1 – 9  Synovial Joint TypesFinal Review Chapters 1 – 9  Names of movements o Gliding nearly flat bone surfaces slide or glide over each other o Flexion decrease angle of a joint o Extension increase angle of joint o Hyperextension excessive extension movement beyond normal anatomical position o Abduction move appendage away from midline o Adduction move appendage toward midline o Circumduction move distal part of appendage in a circular motion o Rotation turn on a pivot with circular motion o Elevation upward movement raising body part vertically o Depression downward movement lowering body part vertically o Protraction move body part forward on horizontal plane o Retraction move body backward/posterior o Supination turn palm of hand to face forward o Pronation turns palm of hand to face backward o Inversion turns sole of foot inward o Eversion turns sole of foot outward o Dorsiflexion stand on heels, toes up o Plantar flexion raise heel, toes downFinal Review Chapters 1 – 9Final Review Chapters 1 – 9Final Review Chapters 1 – 9Final Review Chapters 1 – 9 The twelve pairs of ribs give structural support to the sides of the thoracic cavity. The three types of ribs are the true (vertebrosternal) ribs, vertebrochondral, ribs, and floating (vertebral) ribs. Skeletal muscle is considered voluntary because it can be made to contract or relax by conscious control. Skeletal muscle tissue is attached to bones and is striated and voluntary. cardiac muscle tissue, which forms most of the heart wall and is striated, is involuntary. Gap junctions provide route for quick conduction of electrical signals (muscle action potentials) throughout heart. Involuntary (not conscious) control. Smooth muscle tissues are usually involuntary; can produce powerful contractions as many muscle fibers contract in unison. Smooth muscle tissue is found in the walls of hollow internal structures (blood vessels and viscera) and is nonstriated and involuntary. Osmosis is s a type of diffusion in which there is net movement of a solvent through a selectively permeable membrane. Like the other types of diffusion, osmosis is a passive process. In living systems, the solvent is water, which moves by osmosis across plasma membranes from an area of higher water concentration to an area of lower water concentration. Another way to understand this idea is to consider the solute concentration: In osmosis, water moves through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration. o Principle of Osmosis. Water molecules move through the selectively permeable membrane; solute molecules cannot. (a) Water molecules move from the left arm into the right arm, down the water concentration gradient. (b) The volume of water in the left arm has decreased and the volume of solution in the right arm has increased. (c) Pressure applied to the solution in the right arm restores the starting conditions.Final Review Chapters 1 – 9 Epithelial - covering Connective - support Muscle - movement Nervous - control Connective tissue is one of the most abundant and widely distributed tissues in the body. o In its various forms, connective tissue has a variety of functions. It binds together, supports, and strengthens other body tissues; protects and insulates internal organs; compartmentalizes structures such as skeletal muscles; serves as the major transport system with in body (blood); is the primary location of stored energy reserves (fat); and is the main source of immune responses. Epithelial tissue or epithelium consists of tightly packed cells that form a continuous layer. o Because the cells are closely packed, and are held tightly together by many cell junctions, there is little intercellular space between adjacent plasma membranes. o The apical (free) surface of an epithelial cell faces the body surface, a body cavity, the lumen (interior space) of an internal organ, or a tubular duct that receives cell secretions. o Epithelium Occurs in the body as: Covering and lining epithelium Forms the outer layer of skin, dips into and lines the open cavities of the cardiovascular, digestive, and respiratory system, and covers the walls and organs of the ventral body cavity. Glandular epithelium Forms the glands of the body o Protection Absorption Filtration Excretion Secretion Exocrine glands – secretions released onto apical surface Endocrine glands – secretions into interstitial fluid or blood (hormones) Sensory reception Has sensory nerves (smell, taste, sight, and hearing) o Simple – only a single layer of cells Stratifed – Several layers of cells Shape of exposed cells Squamous – flattened/scalelike Cuboidal - boxlike Columnar – tall and column shapedFinal Review Chapters 1 – 9 Various conditions may exaggerate the normal curves of the vertebral column, or the column may acquire a lateral bend, resulting in abnormal curves of the vertebral column. Three such abnormal curves—kyphosis, lordosis, and scoliosis—are described in the Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances. Skin color is due primarily to the presence of a pigment called melanin, which is controlled by at least 6 genes. Both light and dark-complexioned people have melanin. However, two forms are produced-- pheomelanin, which is red to yellow in color, and eumelanin, which is dark brown to black. Dark-skinned individuals have large amounts of melanin in the epidermis, so their skin color ranges from yellow to reddish-brown to black. Light-skinned individuals have little melanin in the epidermis. Several distinct layers of keratinocytes in various stages of development form the epidermis. In most regions of the body the epidermis has four strata (STRĀ-ta) or layers—stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, and a thin stratum corneum. This is called thin skin. Where exposure to friction is greatest, such as in the fingertips, palms, and soles, the epidermis has five layers—stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, and a thick stratum corneum. This is called thick skin. The portion of the epithelium proximal to the nail root is the nail matrix. The superficial nail matrix cells divide mitotically to produce new nail cells. The growth rate of nails is determined by the rate of mitosis in matrix cells, which is influenced by factors such as a person’s age, health, and nutritional status. Nail growth also varies according to the season, the time of day, and environmental temperature.Final Review Chapters 1 – 9 How Insulin Helps Control Blood Glucose Levels. Insulin and glucagon are hormones secreted by islet cells within the pancreas. They are both secreted in response to blood sugar levels, but in opposite fashion! Regulation of Polar Hormone Secretion. For polar hormones, tropic hormones stimulate endocrine secretion by stimulating cell secretion; that is, exocytosis. ... The sole function of the hypophysiotropic hormones is to regulate hormone release by the adenohypophysis. Bone canaliculi are microscopic canals between the lacunae of ossified bone. The radiating processes of the osteocytes (called filopodia) project into these canals. These cytoplasmic processes are joined together by gap junctions. Lacunae are small spaces between the lamellae in which contain the bone cells (called "osteocytes") are located. The lacunae are linked together by minute channels called canaliculi. The canaliculi provide routes by which nutrients can reach the osteocytes and waste products can leave them. The parathyroid hormone (PTH), secreted by the parathyroid glands, is responsible for regulating blood calcium levels; it is released whenever blood calcium levels are low. PTH increases blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclasts, which break down bone to release calcium into the blood stream. FEATURE THIN SKIN THICK SKIN Distribution All parts of body except areas such as palms, palmar surface of digits, and soles. Areas such as palms, palmar surface of digits, and soles. Epidermal thickness 0.10–0.15 mm (0.004–0.006 in.). 0.6–4.5 mm (0.024–0.18 in.), due mostly to a thicker stratum corneum. Epidermal strata Stratum lucidum essentially lacking; thinner strata spinosum and corneum. Stratum lucidum present; thicker strata spinosum and corneum. Epidermal ridges Lacking due to poorly developed, fewer, and less-well-organized dermal papillae. Present due to well-developed and more numerous dermal papillae organized in parallel rows. Hair follicles and arrector pili muscles Present. Absent. Sebaceous glands Present. Absent. Sudoriferous glands Fewer. More numerous. Sensory receptors Sparser. Denser.Final Review Chapters 1 – 9Final Review Chapters 1 – 9Final Review Chapters 1 – 9Final Review Chapters 1 – 9