Psychology as Science → The scientific approach to studying psych is EMPIRICISM; Objective
observation of a phenomenon.
Producing and Consuming Research:
- Psychology students are fascinated by research and intend on become producers of research
but are also interested in being consumers of research information (reading about research
that can be later applied in their work or personal life)
- In practice Psychologists engage in both roles → when planning their own research and are
creating new new knowledge they also study the work of others and those who have gone
through this before them.
Why the Producers Role is Important:
- Many psychology professors are active researchers, and if you are offered the opportunity to
work in their laboratories, take it!
- Your faculty supervisor may ask you to code behaviours, assign participants to different
- groups, enter data, or write a report (Figure 1.1).
- This first taste of being a research producer will help you deepen your understanding of
psychological inquiry.
- Although you will be supervised closely, you will be expected to know some basics of
conducting research.
- Important to understand why you have to protect the anonymity of your participants, use a
coding book, or flip a coin to decide who goes in which group.
Why the Consumer Role is Important:
- Despite what career you pursue, becoming a savvy consumer of information is essential.
- Developing an ability to read about research with curiosity and a critical eye is necessary.
- Much of the time, the stories you read and the websites you visit will present information
based on data.
- For example, during an election year, Americans may come across polling
information in the media almost every day. Many online sources have science
sections that include stories on the latest research. Entire websites are dedicated to
psychology-related topics, such as treatments for autism, subliminal learning tapes, or
advice for married couples.
- While some of the research is accurate and useful, some of it is dubious, and some is
actually fake.
- How can you tell high-quality research information when you see it? → A course in
research methods enables you to ask the appropriate questions so you can evaluate
information correctly
- Being a smart consumer of research could be crucial to your future career. You will need to
know how to interpret research data with a critical eye regardless if you need it for your
profession or just in your daily life.
- Clinical psychologists, social workers, and family therapists read research to know
which therapies are the most effective.
- In fact, obtaining a licence in these helping professions requires knowing the
research behind evidence-based treatments—that is, therapies that are supported by
research.
- Teachers also use data to find out which methods work best. And the business world
depends on quantitative information: Research is used to predict what sales will be
like in the future or what consumers will buy.
,How Scientists Work:
- They act as empiricists in their investigations
- They test theories through research and in turn revise their theories based on the resulting data
- They follow norms in the scientific community that prioritise objectivity and fairness.
- They take an empirical approach to both applied research and basic research
- Psychologists make their work public: they submit their results to journals for review and
respond to the work of other scientists. Another aspect of making work public involves
sharing findings of psychological research with the popular media, who may or may not get
the story right.
- 1) Scientists are Empiricists
- Empiricists aim to be systematic and rigorous and to make their work independently
verifiable by other observers
- 2) Scientists Test Theories: The Theory-Data Cycle
Lecture 2: How Psychological Science Advances
- To be an empiricist, one should..
- Base one’s conclusions on direct observations
- Strive for parsimony
- Be sure that one’s research can be applied in a real-world setting
- Discuss one’s ideas in a public setting, such as an online chat room
- Empiricism: Use evidence from the senses and/or instruments that assist the senses (e.g.,
questionnaires, scales, etc.). Systematic and rigorous observations that are independently
verifiable by others
- Empiricists’ practices → How does psychological science progress
- Theory-Data Cycles
- Applied and Basic Research Questions
- What’s Next? Peer Review and the Importance of Publication
- From Journal to Journalism
- Theory Data Cycle
- Theory is a statement, or a set of statements
that describes general principles about how a
variables relate to one another
- A theory serves as a “working truth” - it is
subject to revision pending the outcomes of
empirical research studies
- E.g,
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development
- E.g.
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
- E.g. Weiner’s
Attribution Theory
- E.g Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Needs
,- Research Questions
- The question that you want to answer through research
- Focuses on a specific topic or problem
- (Somewhat) Specific
- Open-Ended
- Hypothesis Development
- A hypothesis is a prediction
- A formal and precise statement about the relationship between variables
- Data Collection
- Once you have formulated your hypothesis/hypotheses..
- Measure your variables of interest
- Using suitable research method
- E.g., a recall study, vignette, experiment, etc
- Data Analysis
- The data may support the the hypothesis
- But this doesn’t prove that the hypothesis (or theory) is correct!
- Science relies on replication - we consider the “weight of the
evidence”
- The data may fail to support the hypothesis
- But cannot “prove” that the hypothesis is “wrong”!
- There may be other reasons you failed to find an effect (e.g.,
methodological issues, etc.)
- It is impossible to prove the absence of a relationship of
effect (just because you may never have seen a black swan,
doesn’t mean black swans
don’t exist)
- E.g Interpersonal Effects of Emotions in
Negotiations
- What was the theory? Emotions as
Social Information Theory (Van
Kleef, 2009)
- Research Question and
Hypotheses - An Example
- A formal
statement of the expected relationships
between two variables.
- Example:
“Negotiators are less demanding when
an opponent expresses anger than when an opponent expresses happiness”
- Example: Relative Deprivation vs Absolute Deprivation
, - Two theories about income and societal unrest
- Absolute deprivation: Poverty causes societal unrest
- Relative deprivation: Feeling poor relative to others causes societal
unrest
- Example: Two monkeys (“A” and “B” were taught to hand over
pebbles. For each pebble they handed over, they received a piece of
cucumber. Monkeys don’t like cucumbers very much, but they
accepted this reward. The researchers then randomly selected
monkey B a better deal: a grape in exchange for a pebble. Monkey A
still got cucumber. The researchers measured (observed) Monkey A’s
dissatisfaction.
- Good theories
- Supported by Data
- Repeatedly and across different designs, measures. Samples
- Falsifiable
- Lead to hypotheses that, when tested, could fail to support
the theory
- Parsimonious
- Simplicity
- Better theory is one that explains phenomenon with a
minimum number of assumptions
- Empiricism separates science from pseudoscience
-
- Applied vs Basic Research Questions
- Basic Research
- Build and enhance general body of knowledge
- Not intended to address a specific, practical problem
- But often the basis for later applied studies
-
- Applied Research
- Focuses on practical problems
- Finding to be directly applied to solutions of problem in
real-world context.
observation of a phenomenon.
Producing and Consuming Research:
- Psychology students are fascinated by research and intend on become producers of research
but are also interested in being consumers of research information (reading about research
that can be later applied in their work or personal life)
- In practice Psychologists engage in both roles → when planning their own research and are
creating new new knowledge they also study the work of others and those who have gone
through this before them.
Why the Producers Role is Important:
- Many psychology professors are active researchers, and if you are offered the opportunity to
work in their laboratories, take it!
- Your faculty supervisor may ask you to code behaviours, assign participants to different
- groups, enter data, or write a report (Figure 1.1).
- This first taste of being a research producer will help you deepen your understanding of
psychological inquiry.
- Although you will be supervised closely, you will be expected to know some basics of
conducting research.
- Important to understand why you have to protect the anonymity of your participants, use a
coding book, or flip a coin to decide who goes in which group.
Why the Consumer Role is Important:
- Despite what career you pursue, becoming a savvy consumer of information is essential.
- Developing an ability to read about research with curiosity and a critical eye is necessary.
- Much of the time, the stories you read and the websites you visit will present information
based on data.
- For example, during an election year, Americans may come across polling
information in the media almost every day. Many online sources have science
sections that include stories on the latest research. Entire websites are dedicated to
psychology-related topics, such as treatments for autism, subliminal learning tapes, or
advice for married couples.
- While some of the research is accurate and useful, some of it is dubious, and some is
actually fake.
- How can you tell high-quality research information when you see it? → A course in
research methods enables you to ask the appropriate questions so you can evaluate
information correctly
- Being a smart consumer of research could be crucial to your future career. You will need to
know how to interpret research data with a critical eye regardless if you need it for your
profession or just in your daily life.
- Clinical psychologists, social workers, and family therapists read research to know
which therapies are the most effective.
- In fact, obtaining a licence in these helping professions requires knowing the
research behind evidence-based treatments—that is, therapies that are supported by
research.
- Teachers also use data to find out which methods work best. And the business world
depends on quantitative information: Research is used to predict what sales will be
like in the future or what consumers will buy.
,How Scientists Work:
- They act as empiricists in their investigations
- They test theories through research and in turn revise their theories based on the resulting data
- They follow norms in the scientific community that prioritise objectivity and fairness.
- They take an empirical approach to both applied research and basic research
- Psychologists make their work public: they submit their results to journals for review and
respond to the work of other scientists. Another aspect of making work public involves
sharing findings of psychological research with the popular media, who may or may not get
the story right.
- 1) Scientists are Empiricists
- Empiricists aim to be systematic and rigorous and to make their work independently
verifiable by other observers
- 2) Scientists Test Theories: The Theory-Data Cycle
Lecture 2: How Psychological Science Advances
- To be an empiricist, one should..
- Base one’s conclusions on direct observations
- Strive for parsimony
- Be sure that one’s research can be applied in a real-world setting
- Discuss one’s ideas in a public setting, such as an online chat room
- Empiricism: Use evidence from the senses and/or instruments that assist the senses (e.g.,
questionnaires, scales, etc.). Systematic and rigorous observations that are independently
verifiable by others
- Empiricists’ practices → How does psychological science progress
- Theory-Data Cycles
- Applied and Basic Research Questions
- What’s Next? Peer Review and the Importance of Publication
- From Journal to Journalism
- Theory Data Cycle
- Theory is a statement, or a set of statements
that describes general principles about how a
variables relate to one another
- A theory serves as a “working truth” - it is
subject to revision pending the outcomes of
empirical research studies
- E.g,
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development
- E.g.
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
- E.g. Weiner’s
Attribution Theory
- E.g Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Needs
,- Research Questions
- The question that you want to answer through research
- Focuses on a specific topic or problem
- (Somewhat) Specific
- Open-Ended
- Hypothesis Development
- A hypothesis is a prediction
- A formal and precise statement about the relationship between variables
- Data Collection
- Once you have formulated your hypothesis/hypotheses..
- Measure your variables of interest
- Using suitable research method
- E.g., a recall study, vignette, experiment, etc
- Data Analysis
- The data may support the the hypothesis
- But this doesn’t prove that the hypothesis (or theory) is correct!
- Science relies on replication - we consider the “weight of the
evidence”
- The data may fail to support the hypothesis
- But cannot “prove” that the hypothesis is “wrong”!
- There may be other reasons you failed to find an effect (e.g.,
methodological issues, etc.)
- It is impossible to prove the absence of a relationship of
effect (just because you may never have seen a black swan,
doesn’t mean black swans
don’t exist)
- E.g Interpersonal Effects of Emotions in
Negotiations
- What was the theory? Emotions as
Social Information Theory (Van
Kleef, 2009)
- Research Question and
Hypotheses - An Example
- A formal
statement of the expected relationships
between two variables.
- Example:
“Negotiators are less demanding when
an opponent expresses anger than when an opponent expresses happiness”
- Example: Relative Deprivation vs Absolute Deprivation
, - Two theories about income and societal unrest
- Absolute deprivation: Poverty causes societal unrest
- Relative deprivation: Feeling poor relative to others causes societal
unrest
- Example: Two monkeys (“A” and “B” were taught to hand over
pebbles. For each pebble they handed over, they received a piece of
cucumber. Monkeys don’t like cucumbers very much, but they
accepted this reward. The researchers then randomly selected
monkey B a better deal: a grape in exchange for a pebble. Monkey A
still got cucumber. The researchers measured (observed) Monkey A’s
dissatisfaction.
- Good theories
- Supported by Data
- Repeatedly and across different designs, measures. Samples
- Falsifiable
- Lead to hypotheses that, when tested, could fail to support
the theory
- Parsimonious
- Simplicity
- Better theory is one that explains phenomenon with a
minimum number of assumptions
- Empiricism separates science from pseudoscience
-
- Applied vs Basic Research Questions
- Basic Research
- Build and enhance general body of knowledge
- Not intended to address a specific, practical problem
- But often the basis for later applied studies
-
- Applied Research
- Focuses on practical problems
- Finding to be directly applied to solutions of problem in
real-world context.
